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Recommendation reports
1.
Coherence, Sentences, Graphics,
and Recommendation Reports ENG 3302 Business and Technical Report Writing © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's
2.
Table of Contents
Topic Slide Number/s Writing Coherent Documents 3 to 15 Writing Effective Sentences 18 to 33 Creating Graphics 34 to 121 Recommendation Reports 71 to 88 © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's
3.
Writing Coherent Documents ©
2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's
4.
Consider seven questions
when revising your document for coherence: • Have you left out anything in turning your outline into a draft? • Have you included all the elements your readers expect to see? • Have you organized the document logically? • Is the document persuasive? Chapter 9. Writing Coherent Documents © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 4
5.
Consider seven questions
when revising your document for coherence (cont.): • Do you come across as reliable, honest, and helpful? • Have you presented all the elements consistently? • Is the emphasis appropriate throughout the document? Chapter 9. Writing Coherent Documents © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 5
6.
Follow four guidelines
when revising headings: • Avoid long noun strings. • Be informative. • Use a grammatical form appropriate to your audience. • Avoid back-to-back headings. Chapter 9. Writing Coherent Documents © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 6
7.
Turning paragraphs into
lists presents four advantages: • It forces you to look at the big picture. • It forces you to examine the sequence. • It forces you to create a helpful lead-in. • It forces you to tighten and clarify your prose. Chapter 9. Writing Coherent Documents © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 7
8.
Study documents from
other cultures to answer four questions: • How does the writer make the information accessible? • How does the writer show the relationship among types of information? • How does the writer communicate the organization of the document as a whole? • How does the writer make transitions from one subject to another? Chapter 9. Writing Coherent Documents © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 8
9.
There are two
kinds of paragraphs: • A body paragraph is a group of sentences (or sometimes a single sentence) that is complete and self-sufficient and that contributes to a larger discussion. • A transitional paragraph helps readers move from one major point to another. Chapter 9. Writing Coherent Documents © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 9
10.
Most paragraphs contain
two elements: • The topic sentence summarizes or forecasts the main point of the paragraph. • The supporting information makes the topic sentence clear and convincing. Chapter 9. Writing Coherent Documents © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 10
11.
Avoid burying bad
news in paragraphs: • The most emphatic location is the topic sentence. • The second most emphatic location is the end of the paragraph. • The least emphatic location is the middle of the paragraph. Chapter 9. Writing Coherent Documents © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 11
12.
Supporting information
usually fulfills one of five roles: • It defines a key term or idea included in the topic sentence. • It provides examples or illustrations of the situation described in the topic sentence. • It identifies causes: factors that led to the situation. • It defines effects: implications of the situation. • It supports the claim made in the topic sentence. Chapter 9. Writing Coherent Documents © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 12
13.
Follow three guidelines
when dividing long paragraphs: • Break the discussion at a logical place. • Make the topic sentence a separate paragraph and break up the supporting information. • Use a list. Chapter 9. Writing Coherent Documents © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 13
14.
Use three techniques
to emphasize coherence: • Add transitional words and phrases. • Repeat key words. • Use demonstrative pronouns followed by nouns. Chapter 9. Writing Coherent Documents © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 14
15.
Use transitional words
and phrases: Chapter 9. Writing Coherent Documents © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 15
16.
Use two techniques
to create a coherent design: • Use headers and footers to enhance coherence. • Use typefaces to enhance coherence. Chapter 9. Writing Coherent Documents © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 16
17.
Headers and footers
are coherence devices. Source: U.S. Department of State, 2007 <www.usaid.gov/policy/coordination/strat plan_fy07-12.pdf>. Chapter 9. Writing Coherent Documents © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 17
18.
Writing Effective Sentences ©
2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's
19.
Use these seven
techniques for structuring effective sentences: • Use lists. • Emphasize new and important information. • Choose an appropriate sentence length. • Focus on the “real” subject. • Focus on the “real” verb. • Use parallel structure. • Use modifiers effectively. Chapter 10. Writing Effective Sentences © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 19
20.
Use these five
guidelines for creating effective lists: • Set off each listed item with a number, a letter, or a symbol (usually a bullet). • Break up long lists. • Present the items in a parallel structure. • Structure and punctuate the lead-in correctly. • Punctuate the list correctly. Chapter 10. Writing Effective Sentences © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 20
21.
Use parallel structure: •
Use the same grammatical form for coordinate elements in a sentence. – all clauses either active or passive – all verbs either indicative or imperative – all nouns preceded by the same article • Parallel structure creates a recognizable pattern and makes a sentence easier to follow. Chapter 10. Writing Effective Sentences © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 21
22.
Use modifiers effectively: •
Distinguish between restrictive and nonrestrictive modifiers. • Avoid misplaced modifiers. • Avoid dangling modifiers. Chapter 10. Writing Effective Sentences © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 22
23.
Choose the right
words and phrases: • Select an appropriate level of formality. • Be clear and specific. • Be concise. • Use inoffensive language. Chapter 10. Writing Effective Sentences © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 23
24.
Select an appropriate
level of formality: There are three levels of formality: • informal • moderately formal • highly formal Use a level and tone appropriate for your • audience • subject • purpose Chapter 10. Writing Effective Sentences © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 24
25.
Informal writing can
cause two problems: • It tends to be imprecise. • It can be embarrassing. Chapter 10. Writing Effective Sentences © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 25
26.
Use these seven
techniques for writing clearly and specifically: • Use the active and passive voice appropriately. • Be specific. • Avoid unnecessary jargon. • Use positive constructions. • Avoid long noun strings. • Avoid clichés. • Avoid euphemisms. Chapter 10. Writing Effective Sentences © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 26
27.
Use the active
and passive voice appropriately: Use the active voice unless • the agent is clear from the context • the agent is unknown • the agent is less important than the action • a reference to the agent is embarrassing, dangerous, or in some other way inappropriate Chapter 10. Writing Effective Sentences © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 27
28.
Use these three
techniques for writing specifically: • Use precise words. • Provide adequate detail. • Avoid ambiguity. Chapter 10. Writing Effective Sentences © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 28
29.
Avoid unnecessary jargon
for four reasons: • It can be imprecise. • It can be confusing. • It is often seen as condescending. • It is often intimidating. Chapter 10. Writing Effective Sentences © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 29
30.
Be concise: • Avoid
obvious statements. • Avoid filler. • Avoid unnecessary prepositional phrases. • Avoid wordy phrases. • Avoid fancy words. Chapter 10. Writing Effective Sentences © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 30
31.
Follow these six
guidelines for avoiding sexist language: • Replace the male-gender words with non-gender- specific words. • Switch to a different form of the verb. • Switch to the plural. • Switch to he or she, he/she, s/he, or his or her. • Address the reader directly. • Alternate he and she. Chapter 10. Writing Effective Sentences © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 31
32.
Follow these five
guidelines for using the people-first approach: • Refer to the person first, the disability second. • Don’t confuse handicap with disability. • Don’t refer to victimization. • Don’t refer to a person as “wheelchair bound” or “confined to a wheelchair.” • Don’t refer to people with disabilities as abnormal. Chapter 10. Writing Effective Sentences © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 32
33.
Use these seven
techniques in preparing text for translation: • Use short sentences. • Use the active voice. • Use simple words. • Include a glossary. • Use words that have only one meaning. • Use pronouns carefully. • Avoid jokes, puns, and culture-bound references. Chapter 10. Writing Effective Sentences © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 33
34.
Creating Graphics Chapter 8.
Communicating Persuasively © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's
35.
Graphics serve five
functions: • They can catch readers’ attention and interest. • They can help writers communicate information that is difficult to communicate with words. • They can help writers clarify and emphasize information. • They can help nonnative speakers of English understand information. • They can help writers communicate information to multiple audiences with different interests, aptitudes, and reading habits. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 35
36.
Graphics offer benefits
that words alone cannot: • Graphics are indispensable in demonstrating logical and numerical relationships. • Graphics can communicate spatial information more effectively than words alone. • Graphics can communicate steps in a process more effectively than words alone. • Graphics can save space. • Graphics can reduce the cost of documents intended for international readers. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 36
37.
An effective graphic
has five characteristics: • It serves a purpose. • It is simple and uncluttered. • It presents a manageable amount of information. • It meets readers’ format expectations. • It is clearly labeled. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 37
38.
Follow these six
suggestions to create honest graphics: • Cite your source and obtain permission. • Include all relevant data. • Begin the axes in your graphs at zero—or mark them clearly. • Do not use a table to hide a data point that would be obvious in a graph. • Show items as they really are. • Do not use color or shading to misrepresent an item’s importance. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 38
39.
Follow these five
guidelines for integrating graphics and text: • Place the graphic in an appropriate location. • Introduce the graphic in the text. • Explain the graphic in the text. • Make the graphic clearly visible. • Make the graphic accessible. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 39
40.
The process of
creating graphics includes four steps: • planning • producing • revising • citing Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 40
41.
As you plan
graphics, consider the following: • audience • purpose of the graphic and the document • kind of information you want to communicate • physical conditions in which readers will use the document • time • money • equipment • expertise Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 41
42.
When producing graphics,
choose one of the following four approaches: • use existing graphics • modify existing graphics • create graphics on a computer • have someone else create the graphics Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 42
43.
Use color effectively: •
Don’t overdo it. • Use color to emphasize particular items. • Use color to create patterns. • Use contrast effectively. • Take advantage of any symbolic meanings colors may already have. • Be aware that color can obscure or swallow up text. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 43
44.
Use color to
establish patterns: Source: Myers, 2010, p. 72. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 44
45.
Use color to
create effective contrast: The text is hard to read because of insufficient contrast. Effective contrast makes the text easier to read. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 45
46.
Choose the category
of technical information you want to communicate: • numerical information • logical relationships • process descriptions and instructions • visual and spatial characteristics Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 46
47.
Five kinds of
graphics help illustrate numerical information: • tables • bar graphs • pictographs • line graphs • pie charts Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 47
48.
Two kinds of
graphics help illustrate logical relationships: • diagrams • organization charts Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 48
49.
Three kinds of
graphics help illustrate process descriptions and instructions: • checklists • flowcharts • logic trees Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 49
50.
Four kinds of
graphics help illustrate visual and spatial characteristics: • photographs • screen shots • line drawings • maps Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 50
51.
A typical table
has these parts: Table number Table title Column head Column subheads Stub Row Data cell Source statement Footnotes Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 51
52.
Follow these nine
guidelines for creating effective tables: • Indicate the units of measure. • In the stub (the left-hand column), list the items being compared. • In the columns, arrange the data clearly and logically. • Do the math. • Use dot leaders if a column contains a “blank” spot: a place where there are no appropriate data. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 52
53.
Follow these nine
guidelines for creating effective tables (cont.): • Don’t make the table wider than it needs to be. • Minimize the use of rules. • Provide footnotes where necessary. • If you did not generate the information yourself, indicate your source. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 53
54.
Horizontal and vertical
bar graphs look like this: Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 54
55.
Follow these six
guidelines for creating effective bar graphs: • Make the proportions fair. • If possible, begin the quantity scale at zero. • Use tick marks (marks along the axis) to signal the amounts. • Arrange the bars in a logical sequence. • Place the title below the figure. • Indicate the source of your information if you did not generate it yourself. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 55
56.
This is an
effective bar graph: Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 56
57.
The basic bar
graph has five variations: • grouped bar graph • subdivided bar graph • 100-percent bar graph • deviation bar graph • stratum graph Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 57
58.
This is an
effective pictograph: Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 58
59.
This pictograph is
misleading: Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 59
60.
Follow these three
guidelines for creating effective line graphs: • If possible, begin the quantity scale at zero. • Use reasonable proportions for the vertical and horizontal axes. • Use grid lines—horizontal, vertical, or both— rather than tick marks when your readers need to read the quantities precisely. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 60
61.
This is an
effective line graph: Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 61
62.
Follow these eight
guidelines for creating effective pie charts: • Restrict the number of slices to six or seven. • Begin with the largest slice at the top and work clockwise in order of decreasing size. • Include a miscellaneous slice for very small quantities. • Label the slices (horizontally, not radially) inside the slice. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 62
63.
Follow these eight
guidelines for creating effective pie charts (cont.): • To emphasize one slice, use a bright, contrasting color or separate the slice from the pie. • Check to see that your software follows the appropriate guidelines for pie charts. • Don’t overdo fill patterns. • Check that your percentages add up to 100. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 63
64.
How effective is
this graphic? Source: Defense Intelligence Agency, 2003 <www.dia.mil/thisisdia/ DIA_Workforce_of_the_Future.pdf>. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 64
65.
Use these four
techniques to show motion: Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 65
66.
Follow these five
guidelines for presenting photographs effectively: • Eliminate extraneous background clutter that can distract readers. • Do not electronically manipulate the photograph. • Help readers understand the perspective. • If appropriate, include a common object to give readers a sense of scale. • If appropriate, label components or important features. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 66
67.
Line drawings offer
three advantages over photographs: • Line drawings can focus readers’ attention on desired information better than a photograph can. • Line drawings can highlight information that might be obscured by bad lighting or a bad angle in a photograph • Line drawings are sometimes easier for readers to understand than photographs are. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 67
68.
Line drawings offer
a unique advantage over other graphics: Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 68
69.
The basic line
drawing has three variations: Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 69
70.
Follow these six
guidelines for creating effective graphics for multicultural readers: • Be aware that reading patterns differ. • Be aware of varying cultural attitudes toward giving instruction. • Deemphasize trivial details. • Avoid culture-specific language, symbols, and references. • Portray people very carefully. • Be particularly careful in portraying hand gestures. Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 70
71.
Writing Recommendation Reports ©
2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's
72.
Recommendation reports
address four kinds of questions: • What should we do about Problem X? • Should we do Function X? • Should we use Technology A or Technology B to do Function X? • We currently use Method A to do Function X. Should we be using Method B? Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 72
73.
Feasibility reports
answer three kinds of questions: • questions of possibility • questions of economic wisdom • questions of perception Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 73
74.
Use a problem-solving
method when preparing a recommendation report: • Identify the problem or opportunity. • Establish criteria for responding to the problem or opportunity. • Determine the options. • Study each option according to the criteria. • Draw conclusions about each option. • Formulate recommendations based on the conclusions. Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 74
75.
Use logic boxes
to plot a series of options: Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 75
76.
Use a matrix
to compare and contrast options: Criteria and Weight Options Ricoh Xerox Sharp Criterion Weight Rating Score(1) Rating Score(1) Rating Score(1) Pages/min. 1 9 9 6 6 3 3 Duplex 3 1 3 3 9 10 30 Color 4 10 40 1 4 10 40 Total Score 52 19 73 (1) Score = Weight x Rating Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 76
77.
Explain your decision
matrix: • Explain why you chose each criterion—or didn’t choose a criterion readers might have expected. • Explain why you assigned a particular weight to each criterion. • Explain why you assigned a particular rating to each option. Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 6
78.
You can present
your conclusions in one of three ways: • Rank all the options. • Classify all the options in two categories: acceptable and unacceptable. • Present a compound conclusion. Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 78
79.
Most recommendation reports
have three major sections: • the body of the report • the front matter • the back matter Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 79
80.
A typical recommendation
report has five body elements: • introduction • methods • results • conclusions • recommendations Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 80
81.
An introduction typically
answers nine questions: • What is the subject of the report? • What is the purpose of the report? • What is the background of the report? • What are your sources of information? • What is the scope of the report? Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 81
82.
An introduction typically
answers nine questions (cont.): • What are the most significant findings? • What are your recommendations? • What is the organization of the report? • What key terms are you using in the report? Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 82
83.
Address the following
four questions when writing the body of your report: • Methods. What did you do? • Results. What did you see? • Conclusions. What does it mean? • Recommendations. What should we do? Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 83
84.
Consider these four
factors when writing your recommendations: • content • tone • form • location Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 84
85.
A typical recommendation
report contains seven elements in the front matter: • letter of transmittal • cover • title page • abstract • table of contents • list of illustrations • executive summary Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 85
86.
Understand the difference
between a descriptive and an informative abstract: • A descriptive abstract describes the kinds of information contained in the report. • An informative abstract presents the major findings. Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 86
87.
Follow these five
guidelines when writing an executive summary: • Use specific evidence in describing the background. • Be specific in describing the research. • Describe the methods briefly. • Describe the findings according to your readers’ needs. • Ask an outside reader to review your draft. Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 87
88.
A typical recommendation
report includes three elements in the back matter: • glossary and list of symbols • references • appendixes Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 88