1.
Aquaculture Defined?
• The art of cultivating the natural produce of water.
• Farming of aquatic organisms in natural or controlled marine or
freshwater environments
• Rearing of aquatic organisms under controlled or semi-controlled
conditions.
• Husbandry of organisms in an aquatic ecosystem
• Rearing of aquatic organisms under controlled or semi-controlled
conditions
• Mariculture – (old name) marine or brackish water

2.
History of Aquaculture
• Egyptian tombs have bas-relief of fish (tilapia) being removed
from ponds – 2500 B.C.
• Carp were farmed in China as early as 2500 B.C.
• England – 1500 A.D. carp culture was introduced
• U.S. – first fish hatchery was in Oregon 1877

3.
Aquaculture
Over the past three decades, aquaculture has
become the fastest growing food producing
sector in the world. Aquaculture has
expanded, diversified, intensified and
advanced technologically, and, as a result, its
contribution to aquatic food production has
also increased significantly.

4.
Aquaculture and Seafood
Capture from the
oceans is maximized.
Aquaculture is
growing as a source
of the world’s
seafood supply.

5.
Aquaculture
Globally, more “food fish” is consumed on a per
capita basis than any other type of meat or
animal protein
Fish (16.0 kg per capita supply in 1998),
Pork (14.9 kg in 1998),
Poultry (10.1 kg in 1998),
beef and veal (9.8 kg in 1998)
Sources: (Delgado et. al., 2003).

6.
Benefits of Aquaculture
Ability to bring
fresh, or even
live, seafood
to market at a
specific time
and quantity.
Asian fresh seafood market
US seafood market

7.
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1950
1954
1958
1962
1966
1970
1974
1978
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
2002
Millions tons
Year
TOTAL
Plants
Fish
Molluscs
 Aquaculture = emerging industry in Europe
FISHSTAT (March 2007)

8.
Current Aquaculture Production
• Aquaculture is the fastest growing sector of
U.S. agriculture with an approximate annual
growth rate of 10%
• Currently aquaculture accounts for 25% of all
seafood consumed in the U.S.

9.
World Aquaculture Production
• In 2000 45.51 million metric tons by weight of
aquaculture products
• Equal to US $56.47 billion
• China is the largest aquaculture producing
country in the world

10.
Percent of Total Food Fish Supplied by
Aquaculture

11.
Aquaculture Production, Ocean Fisheries, and
Fishmeal Production

12.
Aquaculture
In Palestine, the entire consumption of animal protein
of the Palestinians is made up of almost chicken, sheep
and beef with hardly any fish.
The average per capita monthly consumption in the
Palestinian Territories, in terms of Jordanian dinar is:
meat and poultry JD9, bread and cereals JD5,
vegetables, legumes and tubers JD4, fruits and nuts
JD3, dairy products and eggs JD3, sugar and
confectionery JD2, and fish and oil just JD1. This
reflects the insignificant level of fish in their diet.

13.
Aquaculture in Palestine
Eating too much meat and poultry is an unhealthy nutrition.
Meat and poultry are high in cholesterol resulting in higher blood
cholesterol.
High cholesterol increases the risk of coronary heart disease weakening
the heart and making it less efficient.
The risk among Palestinians is compounded with other factors, such as
smoking and high blood pressure. Fish has very little, if any, dietary
cholesterol. Indeed, a survey carried out by the Israel Ministry of Health
has shown that Palestinians living in East Jerusalem have much higher
coronary heart disease mortality than Jews living in Jerusalem (Kark J.,
2000). A primary contributing factor is the dietary habitats of the
Palestinians. Palestinians are not eating fish.

14.
• Aquaculture in the Palestinian authority region
• The political factors, combined with environmental, economic and
infrastructural barriers resulted in a sharp decline in the fishery catch and a
deficit in fish supply of the Mediterranean.
• The fishery catch dropped dramatically from over 3,700 metric tons in 1970
to less than 510 metric tons in 1991 (FAO).
• After May 1994, the fishing zone was expanded and several internationally,
funded projects to enhance the fishery sector are currently in the Gaza
Strip. However, in view of the current trend of industrialization in the area,
the increased pollution of the Gaza Strip coastal area and degradation of
the marine environment marine fish quality will certainly deteriorate and
threaten the safety of the consumer. In addition, the fishery catch, as of
today, is not enough to satisfy the local demand for fish.
• Introducing Aquaculture to the Palestine Authority seems vital to overcome
the shortage of fish supply. Several other reasons justify the preference of
aquaculture over fishery in the PA.

15.
Why Aquaculture Products?
• U.S. or locally grown (Exclusive Economic Zones)
• Control: Food fed, Density, Quality of product
• Sustainable in the face of Finite Resources—overfishing and
habitat destruction antangonists
• Diversify farm income
• Proximity—Farms may be closer to local markets.
• Fuel Cost $$$

16.
Why Aquaculture Products?
• Health Consciousness (protein, FA’s, micronutrients)
-2 fish meals/week decreases mortality from heart problems 50%
-Omega-3 fatty acids decreases occurrence of heart disease (oily marine
fish – Salmon)
• American Cancer Association
– -Regular fish consumption decreases chances of colon cancer 50%
• Efficiency of growth

17.
Feed Conversion (grain:flesh)
feed conversion rate, or feed conversion efficiency (FCE), is a measure of
an animal's efficiency in converting feed mass into increased body mass.

18.
Feed Conversion (grain:flesh)
• Beef cattle on feedlot 8:1
• Swine 3.3:1
• Poultry 2.25:1
• Rainbow trout 1.5:1
• Tilapia 1.25:1
• fish are so efficient!

19.
Why Aquaculture Products?
• Increased production beyond the natural sustainable
fishery yield for a given water volume.
• Less fluctuation and shortfalls in catch due to
seasonability
• Better production efficiency of fish protein and
enhancement of fish quality.
• Improved water quality for irrigation purposes when
integrated with the existing irritation systems and
utilization water bodies unsuitable for domestic or
agricultural purposes.
• Good use of the brackish water that is found in many
locations in the (west Bank region).

20.
Aquaculture is based on water
The key to the
successful culture of
aquatic organisms is
maintenance of water
quality.
Poor water quality =
poor harvest.
Fish ponds in China

21.
WATER IN AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS
To a great extent
water quality
determines the
success or failure
of a fish farming
operation

22.
Source
From where?
underground
surface

23.
Wells
• Types
–
–
• Advantages
– no predators
– no pathogens
• Disadvantages
–
– low O2

24.
Springs
• Advantages
–
– few or no predators
– no pathogens
• Disadvantages
–

25.
Rivers, Lakes and Streams
• Advantages
– large volumes
– inexpensive
• Disadvantages
–
– excessive nutrients

26.
Surface
• Advantages
– inexpensive
• Disadvantages
– contaminates
–

27.
Municipal
• Advantages
–
– no predators
–
• Disadvantages
– disinfectants
•
• chloramines
–

28.
Properties of Water
Aqueous Terrestrial
• Oxygen 0-14 mg/L 21%
• Temperature + 10˚C + 40˚C
• Density Variable (4˚C) Constant
• Composition Variable* Constant
*“Universal Solvent”

29.
Dissolved Oxygen
• Importance
– highest cause of mortality
• Solubility
– variables
• Safe levels
– > 5mg/l

30.
Testing Water Quality
Water quality parameters
often tested are:
Dissolved oxygen
Water temperature
pH
Total Ammonia Nitrogen
Nitrite/Nitrate
Alkalinity/Hardness
Salinity
Water test kit

31.
Water Aeration

32.
Water Quality
During culture
Clear water
Turbid water
Fertile water

33.
NITRIFICATION /
DENITRIFICATION
-
NO2
 Nitrification:
+ NO3
- NO N2 2
NO3
- NO N2O
NH3/NH4
+ O - 2
 Denitrification (Anaerobic processes):

34.
Nitrification
1½ O2
NH - 3
NO3
1½ O2
-
NO2
nitrosomonas nitrobacter
• Requires 3 moles oxygen to convert one mole of ammonia to
nitrate
•

35.
Biofilters

36.
for Bio-Filter to Mature
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Time Required
2 6 10 14 18 22
8
6
4
2
0
Ammonia
(mg/l)
Nitrites &
Nitrates
(mg/l)
NH
NO
NO
2
3
3
Time in Days

37.
Factors that influence water quality
Photosynthesis/Respiration
Water temperature
Fertilization
Feeds
Aeration
Water exchange

38.
WATER IN AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS
Fish perform all
bodily functions in water
• Eat
• Breathe
• Take in and lose salts

39.
Water Balance in Freshwater Fish
Salts
Large quantities
of dilute urine
Ammonia
Water

40.
Water Balance in Saltwater Fish
Small quantities of
concentrated urine
Ammonia
Water
Drinks
sea water

41.
Water Resources
• Water quality
• Water quantity
• Water sources
Inadequate water quality causes more losses than any
other problem!

42.
Uniform dissolved O in pond
2

43.
Decomposing
materials
Low dissolved
oxygen (cool)
High dissolved
oxygen (warm)

44.
Low dissolved oxygen -
possible fish kill
TTuurrnnoovveerr

45.
Relationships

46.
WATER IN AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS
Pre-Use treatment
Sterilization
• Ultraviolet –
•
• Chlorination-de-chlorination –
•
Temperature control
• Heating
• Chilling

47.
WATER IN AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS
Water utilization
• Open water systems
• Flow-through
-Water enters pond or series of ponds and
exits with/without treatment
-
-

48.
WATER IN AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS
• Ponds
• Raceways
• Cages
• Recirculating aquaculture systems

49.
Ponds
• Minimum requirement
– to replace evaporation
–

50.
Raceways
• Minimum requirement
– 500 gal/min. or 1900L/min
• Rational
–
–

51.
Recirculating Aquaculture Systems
• Minimum requirement
– varies depending on size of
system
–
• Rational
– needed to backflush filters
during harvesting
–
–

52.
Aquaculture Classified
• Intensive Aquaculture: Highly
controlled, high density, RAS, raceways,
confined (industrialized)
•Extensive Aquaculture: Minimal control,
lower density, ponds, third world

53.
World Aquaculture

54.
Proportion of Total Aquaculture Production for Different
Taxonomic Groups

55.
Commonly Cultured Fish
• Foodfish
– Many species
• Ornamental fish
– Aquaria
– Backyard ponds
• Bait fish
– Minnows
– Shiners
– Goldfish (carp)
• Natural stock enhancement
– Salmon
– Trout
– Black sea bass
– Red Drum
– Many others…

56.
Commonly Cultured Crustaceans
• Marine (Penaeid) shrimp
• Freshwater shrimp (prawns)
• Crabs
• Crayfish
• Lobsters
• Brine Shrimp

57.
Commonly Cultured Molluscs
• Clams
• Oysters
• Mussels
• Abalone (Sea snails
• Urchins

58.
Catfish
Catfish have widely been caught and farmed for
food for hundreds of years in Africa, Asia,
Europe, and North America. Judgments as to the
quality and flavor vary, with some food critics
considering catfish as being excellent food, while
others dismiss them as watery and lacking in
flavor.

59.
Tilapia- an important species in aquaculture
• During recent years, tilapiine fish have become one of the most
commercially important groups of freshwater fish in world aquaculture.
They are indigenous to African countries but their distribution has
widened as a result of artificial introduction to more than 100 tropical and
subtropical countries.

60.
Tilapia- an important species in aquaculture
Tilapia are highly suitable for aquaculture because of several
physiological attributes:
• they have high growth potential
• they tolerate a variety of environmental conditions and can
adapt to wide ranges of salinity, oxygen tension, and
overcrowding (Watanabe et al., 1985)
• they exhibit relatively short reproductive cycles and breed
prolifically under culture conditions (Coward and Bromage,
2000)
• they are strongly resistant to disease and infection.
• they are acquiescent to handling (Rothbard et al., 1983).
• they are highly valued by humans as food and have a large
international market (Coward and Bromage, 2000).

61.
• Tilapia- an important species in aquaculture
• Culture of tilapia has progressed swiftly during recent years,
particularly in Thailand, Taiwan, the Philippines and China.
Currently, tilapia are the third most cultured fish after carp and
salmonids, but according to a report of the American Tilapia
Association they will become the most important aquaculture fish
this century. Total harvest figures for tilapia grew from 515,000
tones in 1984 to 1.5 million tons in 2002, mostly as a result of
aquaculture expansion. Total production of fish from aquaculture
will have to increase by about 1 million tons a year (from the 2001
level of 37.5 million tones to 53.6 million tones) until the year 2020
to supply the human food fish demand of 127.8 millions (Delgado et
al., 2003).Tilapia consumption has been rapidly increasing in many
countries e.g. since 1995 annual retail sales of tilapia have
consistently surpassed those of trout in the USA.

62.
• Tilapia- an important species in aquaculture
• Optimization of hatchery efficiency is of great
importance if production is to be maximized
and maintained. Scarcity of water has always
been the dominant factor in agriculture, as it
has been throughout most of the arid Middle
East. There is thus a necessity to maximize the
efficiency of water utilization in the culture
process, meaning as much purification and
recirculation of water as possible.

63.
Carp Culture

64.
Carp Aquaculture
• Possibly the oldest form of aquaculture in the
known world.
• Currently the largest (2/3 of ALL fish
production is carp)
• Three key species:
– Grass Carp
– Silver Carp
– Bighead carp

65.
Grass Carp
Silver Carp
Bighead carp

66.
Introduction
• Why carp?
• Eat low on the food chain.
• Tolerate poor water quality
• Adapt to both alkaline and acidic water!

67.
Broodfish
• Broodfish should be selected at 2-4 years of age.
• Grown in ponds up to 1 to 10 acres (0.4 to 4 ha).
• Stock males and females at 1:1 or 2:3
• Preferred Temperature 77°F.
• Hormone injection (hCG) can be used to induce
ovulation.
• Expect ~250,00 eggs/quart of liquid during
incubation.

68.
Culture Methods
• Overall carp culture is similar to other warm
water fish culture.
• Fry will go through a “green water” stage
• Densities of >500,000 fry/a (1.25 million/ha)
are possible!

69.
Feeding
• Grass carp: can be reared on plants alone, but also
perform well on pellets.
• Bighead are eat detritus and zooplankton in the wild,
but also take to pellets!
• Silver carp are primarily planktonivores.

70.
Feeding

71.
Yield?
• Carp ponds often yield 2000-5000 lbs./acre
1 lbs. = 0.45359237 kg
One international acre is defined as 4046.8564224 square metres
• Often sold live or whole on ice.

72.
?

73.
More on carp...
• Grass carp are a member of the Order Cypriniformes and Family
Cyprinidae. Cyprinidae is the largest family of freshwater fish species and
includes all the minnows and carps.
• Grass carp: Native to Asian rivers, but stocked
widely across the US.

74.
Eggs/Fertilization/Hatching
• Grass carp spawn naturally only in rivers with
high water flows and appropriate
temperature.
• Pond spawning does not take place.

75.
Feeding/Growth
• Grass carp consume vegetation intermittently at
temperatures as low as 37 oF (3 oC).
• They eat steadily at 50 to 60 oF (10 to16 oC), with
optimal consumption at temperatures between 70
and 86 oF (21 and 30 oC).

76.
Additional Cultured Organisms
• Seaweed
– Food for Abalone
– Extraction of
nutrients for vitamins
• Corals / Sponges / Sea Fans
– Extraction of
medicines
– Aquarium trade
• Live rock
– Aquarium trade

77.
THE PRACTICE OF SUSTAINABLE
AQUACULTURE

78.
PROPER LAND USE

79.
WATER USE, CONSERVATION, AND REUSE

80.
FEEDING EFFICIENCY
• Animal protein is more expensive than plant
protein
• Select species “low in the food chain”
• Polyculture systems use feed more efficiently

81.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
• Ideal energy source for aquaculture is the sun
(warm the water, energy for photosynthesis)
• Cages and pens can reduce energy required
for harvesting
• Greenhouses can be used to extend growing
season

82.
SAPROPHAGOUS PATHWAY
Collection and concentration of
suspended particles (mostly OM)
 Sludge
Physico-chemical
processes
Particulate
organic
matter
NH - 3/NH4
Fungi
Worms
Microfauna
Bacteria
Nitrification Denitrification
NO3
+
- N2
NO3
Sea cucumber
Ahlgren, 1998

83.
HERBIVORY PATHWAY
Microalgae
Nutrient
CO2
Cyanobacteria Macroalgae
Biomass (growth)
For harvest
and sale
Food source for
other organisms

84.
CASE STUDY:
« RECIRCULATING SYSTEMS »
Arbiv & Van Rijn, 1995
Biofiltration
bacteria
« fresh » water
(3m3/day)
Sedimentation pond
and mechanical
filtration systems
Carps

85.
CASE STUDY:
65% of mean TAN
« RECIRCULATING SYSTEMS »
Twarowska et al., 1997
concentration
« fresh » water = 7%
of the system volume
Sedimentation pond
and mechanical
filtration systems
Tilapia
18% of feed
volatile
Biofiltration solids input
bacteria

86.
INTEGRATED AQUACULTURE

87.
Traditional vs. Integrated Multi-tropic
Aquaculture of Gracilaria
chilensis
60% salmanoid feed stays in water
Gracilaria chilensis (seaweed) removes amonia
and nitrates from water
http://www.texasaquaculture.org/

88.
Integrated aquaculture = raising fish with another
crop
http://land.allears.net/blogs/jackspence/LWTL32.jpg

89.
Traditional vs. Integrated Multi-tropic
Aquaculture of Gracilaria
chilensis
Study examines potential of seaweed to filter
excess nutrients from salmon farms

90.
CASE STUDY:
« INTEGRATED AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS »
High-value products
GENESIS, 2001-2004
Sea bass
Nutrients POM
Light
Oysters
 Time-dynamic
culture
 High-management
demands
Diatoms
+ Si

91.
CASE STUDY:
« INTEGRATED AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS »
Palmaria
SEAPURA, 2001-2004
Porphyra
Gracilaria
Chondrus

92.
CASE STUDY:
« INTEGRATED AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS »
Wastes
Microalgae
SeaOr Marine farm: Shpigel et al., 1993; Neori et al., 2000; 2004
3 kg
Feed
Ulva lactuca Light
Oysters
 POM and dissolved
matter returned back
to the sea = 4,25% of
TAN
 Settling faeces =
32,8% of TAN
1 kg
7,8 kg
3 kg
 Retention =
63% of TAN

93.
NEW DEFINITION OF
INTEGRATION
 Several organisms with different trophic pathways
 Mutual benefits achieved ecologically
 Conversion into biomass (≠ dilution)
 Production of each organisms optimized
 Aims of ‘bio-diversification’:
 To reduce environmental impacts of aquaculture activity
 To increase the commercial value of the system
 Proper integration = Water re-used
 Integrated recirculating aquaculture

94.
OVERALL NUTRIENT BALANCE
Herbivory
conversion
Detrivorous
conversion
40-70% feed N
10-55% feed P
Microalgae Macroalgae
Oysters Abalone
5-25% feed N
50-80% feed N
35-85% feed P
25-45% feed P
WASTES
Bacteria
Bacteria Worms
BIOMASS CONVERSION =
7% feed N and 6% feed P
BIOMASS CONVERSION =
4-15% feed N and 25-45% feed P Schneider et al., 2005

95.
UNSOLVED PROBLEMS

96.
Pictures of Current aquaculture practice
Farmer pond

97.
Integrated with horticulture

98.
Integration with Rice

99.
Integration with chicken

100.
Farmer’s pond

101.
Fish seed collection from wild

102.
ORGANIC AQUACULTURE

103.
ORGANIC AQUACULTURE
• Organic aquaculture is the production of aquacrops
without “off-farm” inputs
• Aquacrops cannot receive any therapeutic chemicals
or feed additives
• Genetic engineering and cloning are not allowed
• No discharge of wastewater into the natural
environment
• Outside contaminants must be kept from the water
supply

104.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
AQUACULTURE