2. Instrumentation,
Introduction: One of the most important components of a
research design is the research instruments because they
gather or collect data or information.
! These research instruments or tools are ways of
gathering data. Without them, data would be
impossible to put in hand.

3. QUESTIONAIRE,
! QUESTIONAIRE The most common instrument or
tool of research for obtaining the data beyond the
physical reach of the observer which, for ex. May be
sent to human beings who are thousands of miles away
or just around the corner.
" Two Forms of Questionnaire :
1. Closed form / Closed-ended
2. Open form / Open-ended

4. Advantages,
" Advantages Facilitates data gathering
" Is easy to test data for reliability and validity
" Is less time-consuming than interview and observation
" Preserves the anonymity and confidentiality of the respondents’
reactions and answers
Disadvantages,
# Printing and mailing are costly
# Response rate maybe low
# Respondents may provide only socially acceptable answers
# There is less chance to clarify ambiguous answer
# Respondents must be literate and with no physical handicaps
# Rate of retrieval can be low because retrieval itself is difficult

5. Questions to Ask Before
Doing Survey Research
! Do you have a clear hypothesis?
! Do your questions focus on that hypothesis?
! Will participants answers provide accurate answers to
your questions?*
! To whom will your results apply?*

6. Answers May Be
Inaccurate Because:
! People don’t know the causes of their own behavior
! People’s memories are inaccurate
! People are not good at predicting their future behavior
! People are not telling you what they know because of:
o Social desirability bias
o Demand characteristics
o Response sets

7. Generalizing Your
Results
! Do you know what your population is?
! How can you get a representative sample of that
population?
! Will nonresponse bias prevent you from generalizing
your results to that population?

8. Planning a Survey
! Deciding on a research question
! Choosing the format of your questions*
! Choosing the format of your interview--if you use an
interview*
! Editing your questions*
! Sequencing your questions*
! Refining your survey instrument*
! Choosing a sampling strategy*

9. Choosing the Format of
Your Questions
! Fixed alternative
! Yes/No
! Reliable
! Not powerful
! Likert
! Open-ended
! May not be properly answered
! May be difficult to score

10. Choosing the Format of
Your Interview
! Unstructured
! Interviewer bias is a serious problem
! Data may not be hard to analyze
! Semi-structured
! Follow-up questions allowed
! Probably best for pilot studies
! Structured
! Standardized, reducing interviewer bias

11. Editing Questions: Nine
Mistakes to Avoid
1. Avoid leading questions 5. Avoid negations
2. Avoid questions that invite 6. Avoid irrelevant questions
the social desirability bias
7. Avoid poorly worded
3. Avoid double-barreled response options
questions
8. Avoid big words
4. Avoid long questions
9. Avoid ambiguous words &
phrases

12. Sequencing Questions
! To boost response rate, put innocuous (harmless)
questions first, personal questions last
! To avoid wasting time, qualify early
! To increase accuracy, keep similar questions together
! To boost response rate, put demographic questions last

13. Putting the Final Touches
on Your Survey Instrument
! Professional appearance
! Proof reading
! Pilot testing
! Practice coding responses--may lead to refining
questionnaire so that it is easier to code responses

14. Choosing a Sampling
Strategy
! Random sampling
! Proportionate stratified random sampling
! Convenience sampling
! Quota sampling
! Conclusions
! Only random sampling will be representative
! Nonresponse bias may ruin your sample

16. Questionnaire,Design,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Specify,the,Information,Needed,
,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,Specify,the,Type,of,Interviewing,Method,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Determine,the,Content,of,Individual,Questions,
Design,the,Question,to,Overcome,the,Respondent’s,Inability,and,Unwillingness,to,
Answer,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Decide,the,Question,Structure,
, ,,,Determine,the,Question,Wording,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,Arrange,the,Questions,in,Proper,Order,
Identify,the,Form,and,Layout
,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Reproduce,the,Questionnaire,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Eliminate,Bugs,by,PreJtesting,

17. Questionnaire,Design,
! Specify.Information.needed.
! It.is.the.first.step.for.questionnaire.design.as.it.helps.in.
clearly.understanding.needs.
.
! Type.of.Interviewing.method.
! Mail.Questionnaire.
! Telephone.Questionnaire.
! Personal.Questionnaire.
! Electronic.Questionnaire.
(very.similar.to.mail.questionnaire).

18. Questionnaire,Design,
(Cont’d),
! Individual.Question.Content.
! Is.the.question.necessary?.
! Are.several.questions.needed.instead.of.one?.
! E.g.:F.
“Do.you.think.CocaFCola.is.a.tasty.and.refreshing.soft.
drink??”..
“Do.you.think.CocaFCola.is.a.tasty.soft.drink?”.
“Do.you.think.CocaFCola.is.a.refreshing.soft.drink?”..

19. Questionnaire,Design,
(Cont’d),
! Overcoming.inability.to.answer.
! Is.the.Respondent.informed?.
e.g.:F.A.husband.may.not.be.aware.of.monthly.expenses.
for.groceries.and.department.store.if.wife.make.
purchase.or.vice.versa.
! Can.the.Respondent.Remember?.
! Can.the.Respondent.articulate?.
e.g.:F.If.asked.to.describe.the.atmosphere.of.the.
department.store..

20. Questionnaire,Design,
(Cont’d),
! Overcome.Unwillingness.to.Answer.
! Effort.required.of.the.Respondents.
! Context.
! Legitimate.Purpose.
! Sensitive.information.
! Increase.the.willingness.of.Respondents.
! Choosing.Question.Structure.
! Unstructured.Question.
! Structured.Question.

21. Choosing,Question,
Wording,
! define.the.issue.
! use.ordinary.words.
! use.unambiguous.words.
! avoid.leading.questions.
! avoid.implicit.alternatives.
! avoid.implicit.assumptions.
! avoid.generalizations.and.estimates.
! use.positive.and.negative.statements.

22. Define,the,issue ,,
The W's Defining the Question
Who The Respondent
It is not clear whether this question relates to
the individual respondent or the respondent's
total household.
What The Brand of Shampoo
It is unclear how the respondent is to answer
this question if more than one brand is used.
When Unclear
The time frame is not specified in this question.
The respondent could interpret it as meaning
the shampoo used this morning, this week, or
over the past year.
Where At home, at the gym, on the road?

23. Define,the,issue ,,
....A.question.should.clearly.define.the.issue.being.
addressed.
! Which.brand.of.shampoo.do.you.use??.
! Which.brand.or.brands.of.shampoo.have.you.
personally.used.at.home.during.the.last.month?.In.
case.of.more.than.one.brand,.please.list.all.the.
brands.that.apply?.

24. Use,ordinary,Words,
ordinary.words.should.be.used.in.questionnaire.
vocabulary.level.should.match.the.respondents.
vocabulary..
! Do.you.think.the.distribution.of.soft.drink.is.
adequate??.
! Do.you.think.soft.drinks.are.readily.available.when.
you.want.them.to.buy?.

25. Use,Unambiguous,Words,
Words.in.questionnaire.should.have.a.single.meaning.
known.to.respondents.
! In.a.typical.month.how.often.do.you.shop.in.department.
store??.
Never….. .Occassional.….. .Sometimes…...
Often….. .Regularly…...
! In.a.typical.month.how.often.do.you.shop.in.department.
store?.
Less.than.once….. .1.or.2.times…. .3.or.4.times…..
More.than.4.times…...

26. Avoid,leading,questions,
A.leading.question.clues,.the.respondent.to.answer.in.
a.certain.way.
! Do.you.think.patriotic.Americans.should.buy.
imported.automobiles.when.that.would.put.
American.labor.out.of.work??.
! Do.you.think.Americans.should.buy.imported.
automobile?.

27. Avoid,implicit,alternatives,
Alternative.not.explicitly.expressed.is.an.implicit.
alternative.
! Do.you.like.to.fly.when.travelling.short.distances??.
! Do.you.like.to.fly.when.travelling.short.distances.or.
would.you.rather.drive?.

28. Avoid,implicit,assumptions,
Questions.should.not.be.worded.so.that.the.answer.is.
dependent.upon.implicit.assumption.
! Are.you.in.favor.of.a.balanced.budget??.
! Are.you.in.favor.of.a.balanced.budget.if.it.would.
result.in.an.increase.in.the.personal.income.tax?.
.
.

29. Avoid,Generalizations,and,
Estimates,
! Questions.should.be.specific.not.general.
! Respondent.does.not.make.generalization.or.
compute.science.
! What.is.the.annual.per.capita.expenditure.on.
groceries.in.your.household??.
! What.is.the.monthly.expenditure.on.groceries.in.
your.household.and.How.many.members.are.their.in.
your.household?.

30. Determining,the,order,of,
questions,
Opening.question.
! Can.be.crucial.in.gaining.the.confidence,.should.be.
interesting,.simple,.and.non.threatening.
Type%of%Information%
! As.a.general.guideline,.basic.information.should.be.
obtained.first,.followed.by.classification,.and,.finally,.
identification.information.
Difficult.Questions.
! Difficult.questions.which.are.sensitive,.embarrassing,.
complex,.or.dull,.should.be.placed.late.in.the.sequence.

31. Funnel,Approach,
! Questions.asked.in.sequence.can.influence.the.
response.to.subsequent.question.
! So.questions.asked.from.general.to.specific.
! What.considerations.are.important.to.you.in.
selecting.a.department.store??.
! In.selecting.a.department.store.how.important.is.
convenience.or.location?.

32. Form,and,Layout,
! format,.spacing.and.positioning.questions.have.
significant.effect.on.results.
! should.be.numbered.serially..
! 2000.population.of.census.reveals.questions.at.the.
top.received.more.importance.than.the.bottom.
! Instructions.in.red.made.little.difference.that.they.
made.the.questionnaire.appear.more.complicated.

33. Reproduction,of,
Questionnaire,
! Paper.quality.can.reflect.on.project.
! Vertical.response.columns.
! Tendency.to.crowd.should.be.avoided.
! Instructions.to.be.placed.close.to.the.question.
! Motto.easy.to.read.and.answer.
! Should.be.large.and.clear..

34. Pilot the research
instrument to:
• identify any problems such as the wording of
questions, the length of the interview, and
whether the research instrument has been
compiled in a logical fashion
• test the interviewers' / focus group moderators’
• ability to administer the research instrument
and indicate whether further training is
required.

35. Example,of,closedJended,questions,
1. What is your gender
1. Male 2. Female
2. What is your ethnic identification?
1. African American
2. American Indian
3. Asian/Pacific Islander
4. European American
5. Mexican American/Latino
6. Multicultural or multi-racial
7. Other ____________________

36. More,examples,
3. What is your age?
1. 18 or under
2. 19-29
3. 30-49
4. 50 – 64
5. Over 65
4. How satisfied are you with Social Work 292?
1. Very satisfied
2. Satisfied
3. Neutral
4. Unsatisfied
5. Very Unsatisfied

37. INTERVIEW,
INTERVIEW It is in a sense of an oral questionnaire.
Instead of writing the response, the interviewee gives the
needed information orally and face-to-face. With a
skillful interviewer, the interview is often superior to
other data-gathering device.
The purposes of interview are :
$ to verify information gathered from written sources
$ to clarify points of information
$ to update information and
$ to collect data

38. Avoid to do:
# Too structured - does not allow interviewees to put
forward their own point of view and experiences
# Too unstructured - may result in too many data that are
irrelevant to the study
# Complex and technical language
# Multiple questions
o Ex:'What do you feel about the risks of sharing syringes
now as opposed to five years ago?‘
# Leading questions
o Ex:'Why is there so much plagiarism nowadays?'
o Ex:Should be: 'Is there any plagiarism issue in this
faculty?' or 'Tell me about plagiarism around here.'

39. Case,Study,
Many well-known case study researchers such as Robert E.
Stake (1995), Helen Simons (1980), and Robert K. Yin (1984)
have written about case study research and suggested
techniques for organizing and conducting the research
successfully.
Steps that should be used in case study:
1) Determine and define the research questions
2) Select the cases and determine data gathering and analysis
techniques
3) Prepare to collect the data
4) Collect data in the field
5) Evaluate and analyze the data
6) Prepare the report
.

40. Step 1. Determine and Define the Research Questions
! The.researcher.establishes.the.focus.of.the.study.by.forming.
questions.about.the.situation.or.problem.to.be.studied.and.
determining.a.purpose.for.the.study..
! The.research.object.in.a.case.study.is.often.a.program,.an,
entity,.a,person,.or.a,group,of,people...
! .The.researcher.investigates.the.object.of.the.case.study.in,
depth,using.a.variety.of.data.gathering.methods.to.produce.
evidence.that.leads.to.understanding.of.the.case.and.answers.
the.research.questions...
! Case.study.research.generally.answers.one.or.more.questions.
which.begin.with."how".or."why."..
! To.assist.in.targeting.and.formulating.the.questions,.
researchers.conduct,a,literature,review...
! This.literature.review.establishes.what.research.has.been.
previously.conducted.and.leads.to.refined,.insightful.questions.
about.the.problem...

41. Step 2. Select the Cases and Determine Data
Gathering and Analysis Techniques
! Determines.what.approaches.to.use.in.selecting.single,or,multiple,realJlife,cases.
to.examine.in,depth,and.which.instruments.and.data.gathering.approaches.to.
use...
! When.using,multiple,cases,.each.case.is.treated.as,a,single,case...
! carefully.select.cases.and.carefully.examine.the.choices.available.from.among.
many.research,tools,available,in,order,to,increase,the,validity,of.the.study...
! Careful.discrimination.(distinction).at.the.point.of.selection.its.helps.establish,
boundaries,around.the.case...
! A.key,strength,of.the.case.study.method.involves.using,multiple,sources,and,
techniques,in.the.data.gathering.process...
! Determines.in.advance.what.evidence.to.gather.and.what.analysis.techniques.to.
use.with.the.data.to.answer.the.research.questions...
! Data.gathered.is.normally,largely,qualitative,.but.it.may.also.be.quantitative..
! .Tools.to.collect.data.can.include.surveys,,interviews,,documentation,review,,
observation,.and.even.the.collection.of.physical.artifacts...
! Entire.the.design.phase,.researchers.must.ensure.that.the.study.is.well.
constructed.to.ensure.construct.validity,.internal.validity,.external.validity,.and.
reliability...
! The.researcher.attempts.to.establish.a.chain,of,evidence,forward,and,backward...

42. Step 3. Prepare to Collect the Data
! Because.case.study.research.generates.a.large,amount,of,data.from.multiple.
sources,.systematic,organization,of,the,data,is.important.to.prevent.the.
researcher.from.becoming.overwhelmed.by.the.amount.of.data.and.to.prevent.
the.researcher.from.losing.sight.of.the.original.research.purpose.and.questions..
! Researchers.prepare,databases,to.assist.with.categorizing,.sorting,.storing,.and.
retrieving.data.for.analysis...
! Investigators.need.to.be.good,listeners,who.can.hear.exactly.the.words.being.
used.by.those.interviewed...
! Qualifications.for.investigators.also.include.being.able.to.ask.good.questions.and.
interpret.answers...
! Good.investigators.review,documents,looking,for,facts...
! Investigators.need.to.be,flexible,in.realF.life.situations.and.not.feel.threatened.by.
unexpected.change,.missed.appointments,.or.lack.of.office.space...
! Investigators.need.to.understand,the,purpose,of,the,study,and.grasp,the,issues...
! Investigators.must.also.be.aware.that.they.are.going.into.the.world,of,real,
human,beings,who.may.be.threatened.or.unsure.of.what.the.case.study.will.
bring...

43. 4. Collect Data in the Field
! The.researcher.must.collect,and,store,multiple,sources,of,evidence,
comprehensively,and,systematically..
! Researchers.carefully.observe.the.object.of.the.case.study.and.
identify,causal,factors,associated.with.the.observed.phenomenon...
! Renegotiation.of.arrangements.with.the.objects.of.the.study.or.
addition.of.questions.to.interviews.may.be.necessary.as.the.study.
progresses...
! Case.study.research.is.flexible,.but.when.changes.are.made,.they.are.
documented,systematically...
! Maintaining.the.relationship.between.the.issue.and.the.evidence.is.
mandatory...
! The.researcher.may.enter.some.data.into.a.database.and.physically.
store.other.data,.but.the.researcher.documents,.classifies,.and.crossF
references.all.evidence.so.that.it.can.be.efficiently.recalled.for.
sorting.and.examination.over.the.course.of.the.study...

44. Step 5. Evaluate and Analyze the Data
! The.researcher.examines,raw,data,using,many,interpretations,in,
order,to,find,linkages,between,the,research,object,and,the,
outcomes,with.reference.to.the.original.research.questions...
! Throughout,the,evaluation,and.analysis.process,.the.researcher.
remains,open,to,new,opportunities,and.insights...
! Its.use.of.multiple,data,collection,methods,and,analysis,techniques,.
provides.researchers.with.opportunities.to.triangulate.data.in.order.
to.strengthen.the.research.findings.and.conclusions...
! Researchers.categorize,.tabulate,.and.recombine.data.to.address.
purpose.of.the.study,.and.conduct.crossFchecks.of.facts.and.
differences.in.accounts..Focused,.short,.repeat.interviews.may.be.
necessary.to.gather.additional.data.to.verify.key.observations.or.
check.a.fact...
! Researchers.use.the.quantitative.data.that.has.been.collected.to.
confirm.and.support.the.qualitative.data.which.is.most.useful.for.
understanding.the.rationale.or.theory.underlying.relationships...

45. Step 6. Prepare the report
! case.studies.report,the,data,in,a,way,that,transforms,a,
complex,issue,into,one,that,can,be,understood,.allowing.the.
reader.to.question.and.examine.the.study.and.reach.an.
understanding.independent.of.the.researcher...
! Case.studies.present.data.in.very.publicly.accessible.ways.and.
may.lead.the.reader.to.apply.the.experience.in.his.or.her.own.
realFlife.situation...
! Some.researchers.report.the.case.study.as.a.story...
! The.researcher.uses.representative.audience.groups.to.review.
and.comment.on.the.draft.document..Based.on.the.
comments,.the.researcher.rewrites.and.makes.revisions...
! Analyze.the.data.using:..
1) SWOT.analysis.(Strengths,.Weaknesses,.Opportunities.and.
Threats)..
2) Environmental.scan..
3) Critical.success.factors;..