Define the key biographical characteristics. Identify two types of ability. Shape the behavior of others. Distinguish between the four schedules of reinforcement. Clarify the role of punishment in learning. Practice self-management

1. Foundations of
Individual Behavior
Chapter 2

2. 2–2
After studying this chapter,
you should be able to:
1. Define the key biographical characteristics.
2. Identify two types of ability.
3. Shape the behavior of others.
4. Distinguish between the four schedules of
reinforcement.
5. Clarify the role of punishment in learning.
6. Practice self-management
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES

3. 2–3
Biographical CharacteristicsBiographical Characteristics
Biographical Characteristics
Personal characteristics—such as age,
gender, and marital status—that are objective
and easily obtained from personnel records.

4. 2–4
Ability, Intellect, and IntelligenceAbility, Intellect, and Intelligence
Ability
An individual’s capacity to perform
the various tasks in a job.
Intellectual Ability
The capacity to do mental activities.
Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence contains four subparts:
cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural.

5. 2–5
• Number aptitude
• Verbal comprehension
• Perceptual speed
• Inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning
• Spatial visualization
• Memory
• Number aptitude
• Verbal comprehension
• Perceptual speed
• Inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning
• Spatial visualization
• Memory
Dimensions of
Intellectual Ability
Dimensions of
Intellectual Ability
E X H I B I T 2–1
E X H I B I T 2–1

6. 2–6
Physical AbilitiesPhysical Abilities
Physical Abilities
The capacity to do tasks
demanding stamina, dexterity,
strength, and similar
characteristics.

7. 2–7
Other Factors
7. Body coordination
8. Balance
9. Stamina
Other Factors
7. Body coordination
8. Balance
9. Stamina
Nine Physical AbilitiesNine Physical Abilities
Strength Factors
1. Dynamic strength
2. Trunk strength
3. Static strength
4. Explosive strength
Strength Factors
1. Dynamic strength
2. Trunk strength
3. Static strength
4. Explosive strength
Flexibility Factors
5. Extent flexibility
6. Dynamic flexibility
Flexibility Factors
5. Extent flexibility
6. Dynamic flexibility
E X H I B I T 2–2
E X H I B I T 2–2
Source: Adapted from
HRMagazine published
by the Society for Human
Resource Management,
Alexandria, VA.

8. 2–8
Ability-Job
Fit
The Ability-Job FitThe Ability-Job Fit
Employee’sEmployee’s
AbilitiesAbilities
Job’s AbilityJob’s Ability
RequirementsRequirements

9. 2–9
LearningLearning
Learning
• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience
Learning
• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience
Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience.

10. 2–
10
Theories of LearningTheories of Learning
Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response
Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus that would not
ordinarily produce such a response.

11. 2–
11
E X H I B I T 2–3
E X H I B I T 2–3
Source: The Far Side ®
by Gary Larson © 1993
Far Works, Inc. All rights
reserved. Used with
permission.

12. 2–
12
Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement
Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.

13. 2–
13
Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Key Concepts
• Attentional processes
• Retention processes
• Motor reproduction processes
• Reinforcement processes
Key Concepts
• Attentional processes
• Retention processes
• Motor reproduction processes
• Reinforcement processes
Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation
and direct experience.

14. 2–
14
Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning
speed and permanence.
Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning
speed and permanence.
Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to the desired response.

15. 2–
15
Types of ReinforcementTypes of Reinforcement
 Positive reinforcement
– Providing a reward for a desired behavior.
 Negative reinforcement
– Removing an unpleasant consequence when the
desired behavior occurs.
 Punishment
– Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an
undesirable behavior.
 Extinction
– Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its
cessation.

16. 2–
16
Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
each time it is demonstrated.
Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
often enough to make the
behavior worth repeating but not
every time it is demonstrated.

17. 2–
17
Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewards are spaced at
uniform time intervals.
Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewards are initiated after a
fixed or constant number of
responses.

18. 2–
18
Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
Fixed-ratio
E X H I B I T 2–4
E X H I B I T 2–4

19. 2–
19
Intermittent Schedules of ReinforcementIntermittent Schedules of Reinforcement
E X H I B I T 2–5
E X H I B I T 2–5

20. 2–
20
Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 2–5 (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 2–5 (cont’d)

21. 2–
21
Behavior ModificationBehavior Modification
Five Step Problem-Solving Model
1. Identify critical behaviors
2. Develop baseline data
3. Identify behavioral consequences
4. Develop and apply intervention
5. Evaluate performance improvement
Five Step Problem-Solving Model
1. Identify critical behaviors
2. Develop baseline data
3. Identify behavioral consequences
4. Develop and apply intervention
5. Evaluate performance improvement
OB Mod
The application of reinforcement concepts
to individuals in the work setting.

22. 2–
22
OB MOD Organizational ApplicationsOB MOD Organizational Applications
 Well Pay versus Sick Pay
– Reduces absenteeism by rewarding attendance, not
absence.
 Employee Discipline
– The use of punishment can be counter-productive.
 Developing Training Programs
– OB MOD methods improve training effectiveness.
 Self-management
– Reduces the need for external management control.