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8_I_en.pdf

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  1. Guide to Instruments and Methods of Observation Volume I –Measurement of Meteorological Variables 2018 edition WMO-No. 8 WEATHER CLIMATE WATER
  2. Guide to Instruments and Methods of Observation Volume I – Measurement of Meteorological Variables WMO-No. 8 2018 edition
  3. EDITORIAL NOTE METEOTERM, the WMO terminology database, may be consulted at http://public.wmo.int/en/ resources/meteoterm. Readers who copy hyperlinks by selecting them in the text should be aware that additional spaces may appear immediately following http://, https://, ftp://, mailto:, and after slashes (/), dashes (-), periods (.) and unbroken sequences of characters (letters and numbers). These spaces should be removed from the pasted URL. The correct URL is displayed when hovering over the link or when clicking on the link and then copying it from the browser. WMO-No. 8 © World Meteorological Organization, 2018 The right of publication in print, electronic and any other form and in any language is reserved by WMO. Short extracts from WMO publications may be reproduced without authorization, provided that the complete source is clearly indicated. Editorial correspondence and requests to publish, reproduce or translate this publication in part or in whole should be addressed to: Chair, Publications Board World Meteorological Organization (WMO) 7 bis, avenue de la Paix Tel.: +41 (0) 22 730 84 03 P.O. Box 2300 Fax: +41 (0) 22 730 81 17 CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland Email: publications@wmo.int ISBN 978-92-63-10008-5 NOTE The designations employed in WMO publications and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of WMO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by WMO in preference to others of a similar nature which are not mentioned or advertised.
  4. PUBLICATION REVISION TRACK RECORD Date Part/ chapter/ section Purpose of amendment Proposed by Approved by
  5. FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi CHAPTER 1. GENERAL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Meteorological observations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1.2 Representativeness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.1.3 Metadata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2 Meteorological observing systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.3 General requirements of a meteorological station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.3.1 Automatic weather stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3.2 Observers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3.3 Siting and exposure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.3.3.1 Site selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.3.3.2 Coordinates of the station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.3.3.3 Operating equipment in extreme environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.3.4 Changes of instrumentation and homogeneity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.3.5 Inspection and maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3.5.1 Inspection of stations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3.5.2 Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.4 General requirements of instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.4.1 Desirable characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.4.2 Impact of the Minamata convention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.4.3 Mechanically recording instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.5 Measurement standards, traceability and units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.5.1 Definitions of standards of measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.5.2 Traceability assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.5.3 Symbols, units and constants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.5.3.1 Symbols and units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.5.3.2 Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.6 Uncertainty of measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.6.1 Meteorological measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.6.1.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.6.1.2 Definitions of measurements and measurement errors . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.6.1.3 Characteristics of instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.6.2 Sources and estimates of error. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.6.3 The measurement uncertainties of a single instrument. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 1.6.3.1 The statistical distributions of observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 1.6.3.2 Estimating the true value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.6.3.3 Expressing the uncertainty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 1.6.3.4 Measurements of discrete values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 1.6.4 Accuracy requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 1.6.4.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 1.6.4.2 Required and achievable performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Annex 1.A. Operational measurement uncertainty requirements and instrument performance requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Annex 1.B. Strategy for traceability assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Annex 1.C. Regional Instrument Centres. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Annex 1.D. Siting classifications for surface observing stations on land. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Annex 1.E. Operating equipment in extreme environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Annex 1.F. Station exposure description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 References and further reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Page CONTENTS
  6. CHAPTER 2. MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 2.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 2.1.1 Definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 2.1.2 Units and scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 2.1.3 Meteorological requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 2.1.3.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 2.1.3.2 Measurement uncertainty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82 2.1.3.3 Response times. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 2.1.3.4 Recording the circumstances in which measurements are taken. . . . 82 2.1.4 Methods of measurement and observation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 2.1.4.1 General measurement principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 2.1.4.2 General exposure requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 2.1.4.3 Sources of error – general comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 2.1.4.4 Maintenance – general comments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 2.1.4.5 Implications of the Minamata Convention for temperature measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 2.2 Electrical thermometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 2.2.1 General description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 2.2.1.1 Metal resistance thermometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 2.2.1.2 Thermistors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 2.2.1.3 Thermocouples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 2.2.2 Measurement procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 2.2.2.1 Electrical resistance thermometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 2.2.2.2 Thermocouples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 2.2.3 Exposure and siting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 2.2.4 Sources of error. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 2.2.4.1 Electrical resistance thermometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 2.2.4.2 Thermocouples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 2.2.5 Comparison and calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 2.2.5.1 Electrical resistance thermometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 2.2.5.2 Thermocouples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 2.2.6 Corrections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 2.2.7 Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 2.3 Liquid-in-glass thermometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 2.3.1 General description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 2.3.1.1 Ordinary (station) thermometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 2.3.1.2 Maximum thermometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 2.3.1.3 Minimum thermometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 2.3.1.4 Soil thermometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 2.3.2 Measurement procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 2.3.2.1 Reading ordinary thermometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 2.3.2.2 Measuring grass minimum temperatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 2.3.3 Thermometer siting and exposure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 2.3.4 Sources of error in liquid-in-glass thermometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 2.3.4.1 Elastic errors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 2.3.4.2 Errors caused by the emergent stem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 2.3.4.3 Parallax and gross reading errors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 2.3.4.4 Errors due to differential expansion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 2.3.4.5 Errors associated with spirit thermometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 2.3.5 Comparison and calibration in the field and laboratory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 2.3.5.1 Laboratory calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 2.3.5.2 Field checks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 2.3.6 Corrections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 2.3.7 Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 2.3.7.1 Breakage in the liquid column. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 2.3.7.2 Scale illegibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.3.8 Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 vi GUIDE TO INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF OBSERVATION - VOLUME I Page
  7. 2.4 Mechanical thermographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.4.1 General description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.4.1.1 Bimetallic thermograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.4.1.2 Bourdon-tube thermograph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.4.2 Measurement procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 2.4.3 Exposure and siting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 2.4.4 Sources of error. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 2.4.5 Comparison and calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 2.4.5.1 Laboratory calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 2.4.5.2 Field comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 2.4.6 Corrections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 2.4.7 Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 2.5 Radiation shields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 2.5.1 Louvred screens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 2.5.2 Other artificially ventilated shields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 2.6 Traceabilitty assurance and calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Annex. Defining the fixed points of the International Temperature Scale of 1990. . . . . . . . . . . 111 References and further reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 CHAPTER 3. MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 3.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 3.1.1 Definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 3.1.2 Units and scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 3.1.3 Meteorological requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 3.1.4 Methods of measurement and observation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 3.1.4.1 General measurement principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 3.1.4.2 General exposure requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 3.1.4.3 Sources of error: general comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 3.1.4.4 Maintenance: general comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 3.1.4.5 Implications of the Minamata Convention for pressure measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 3.2 Electronic barometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 3.2.1 Integrated-circuit-based variable capacitive sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 3.2.2 Digital piezoresistive barometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 3.2.3 Cylindrical resonator barometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 3.2.4 Aneroid displacement transducers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 3.2.5 Exposure of electronic barometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 3.2.6 Reading electronic barometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 3.2.7 Sources of error. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 3.2.7.1 Drift between calibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 3.2.7.2 Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 3.2.7.3 Electrical interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 3.2.7.4 Nature of operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 3.3 Aneroid barometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 3.3.1 Construction requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 3.3.2 Achievable measurement uncertainty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 3.3.3 Exposure of aneroid barometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 3.3.4 Reading aneroid barometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 3.3.4.1 Accuracy of readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 3.3.4.2 Reductions applied to barometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 3.3.5 Sources of error. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 3.3.5.1 Incomplete compensation for temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 3.3.5.2 Elasticity errors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 3.4 Barographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 3.4.1 General requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 3.4.2 Construction of barographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 3.4.3 Exposure of barographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 vii CONTENTS Page
  8. 3.4.4 Sources of error. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 3.4.5 Reading a barograph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 3.4.5.1 Accuracy of readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 3.4.5.2 Corrections to be applied to barograph readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 3.4.5 Transport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 3.5 Barometric change and Pressure tendency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 3.5.1 Pressure tendency and pressure tendency characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 3.5.2 Measurement of a barometric change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 3.6 Traceability assurance and calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 3.6.1 General comments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 3.6.2 Laboratory calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 3.6.2.1 General equipment set-up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 3.6.2.2 Laboratory standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 3.6.2.3 Method of calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 3.6.2.3.2 Calculation of reversibility (hysteresis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 3.6.3 Field inspections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 3.7 Adjustment of barometer readings to standard and other levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 3.7.1 Standard levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 3.7.2 General reduction formula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 3.7.3 Reduction formula for low-level stations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Annex 3.A. Methods of measurement with mercury barometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Annex 3.B. Correction of mercury barometer readings to standard conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 References and further reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 CHAPTER 4. MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 4.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 4.1.1 Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 4.1.2 Units and scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 4.1.3 Meteorological requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 4.1.4 Methods of measurement and observation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 4.1.4.1 Overview of general measurement principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 4.1.4.4 Maintenance: general comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 4.1.5 Implications of the Minamata Convention for humidity measurement . . . . . . . 155 4.2 Electrical capacitance hygrometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 4.2.1 General considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 4.2.2 Electrical capacitance hygrometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 4.2.3 Observation procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 4.2.4 Exposure and siting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 4.2.5 Sources of error. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .