This document discusses whether psychology is a science. It presents tables comparing features of established sciences like physics and chemistry to psychology and other fields like astrology and UFOlogy. While psychology shares some features with other sciences like empirical falsifiability and measurement accuracy, it also has challenges like indirect observation and non-quantifiability. The document concludes that while psychology faces issues of degree compared to other sciences, it is still a competent science, as science is defined by its aims and assumptions rather than appearances. It is also discussed how effective a science psychology can be through comparisons to other fields and its historical development.

1. PS409
Psychology, Science,
& Pseudoscience
Dr Brian Hughes
School of Psychology
brian.hughes@nuigalway.ie @b_m_hughes

2. Question:
Is psychology a science?

3. HOT! NOT!
Physics Chemistry Psychology
Empirical
Yes Yes Yes
falsifiability
Parsimony of
Yes Yes Most of the time
theory
Experimental
Yes Yes To an extent
control
Measurement
Yes Yes Kind of
accuracy
Facilitates
Yes Yes A bit
prediction

4. HOT! NOT!
Psychology Meteorology Astrophysics
Empirical
Yes Yes Kind of
falsifiability
Parsimony of
Most of the time Not really Yes
theory
Experimental
To an extent No No
control
Measurement
Kind of Kind of Within limits
accuracy
Facilitates
A bit A bit Who knows?
prediction

5. HOT! NOT!
Psychology Palaeontology Botany
Empirical
Yes No No
falsifiability
Parsimony of
Most of the time Hard to say Not a priority
theory
Experimental
To an extent No No
control
Measurement Patchy track
Kind of Within limits
accuracy record
Facilitates
A bit Not a priority Not a priority
prediction

6. HOT! NOT!
Psychology UFOlogy Astrology
Empirical
Yes Absolutely none Absolutely none
falsifiability
Parsimony of The antithesis of
Most of the time Not at all
theory parsimony
Experimental
To an extent Err, nope No attempt
control
Measurement Track record of
Kind of Not a priority
accuracy utter failure
Facilitates
A bit Not a priority Afraid not!
prediction

7. Question:
Is psychology a science?
Short Answer:
YES!!!

8. Remember…
Science = “any system of knowledge that is concerned with the physical world and
its phenomena and that entails unbiased observations and systematic
experimentation” (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Science = “1. the systematic observation of natural events and conditions in order
to discover facts about them and to formulate laws and principles based on these
facts. 2. the organized body of knowledge that is derived from such observations
and that can be verified or tested by further investigation”
(Academic Press Dict. of Science &Technology)
Features of Principle Features of Practice
Science Science
Valorises falsifiability Publication of data
Peer review
Accuracy in measurement
Argument “ad rem”
Unproven as false = unproven
Empirical evidence
Emphasis on refutation
Appeals to reductionism
Prioritization of parsimony
Acceptance of paradigms
Burden on claimant, not critic Shared endeavour

9. Real Question:
How effective a science can
psychology be?

10. (Brief) Development of psychology as
science
17th century: separation of scientific and
religious subject matter
Psychology part of the non-physical;
thus, considered religious rather than
scientific
“Psychology” = philosophy up to mid-19th
century
1870s: James (Harvard); Wundt (Leipzig)
1900s-10s: Watson (Johns Hopkins)
1960s-70s: Cognitive “revolution”
1980s--present: Successive “biological
revolutions” (neuroscience, genetics)

11. How psychology compares with the
other sciences
Comparison of assumptions
(Elizabeth Valentine, 1992)
Overall assumption
B
e
h
a
v
i
o
u
r
i
s

12. How psychology compares with the
other sciences
Comparison of assumptions
(Elizabeth Valentine, 1992)
Metaphysical assumptions
Determinism
Problems for psychology: Free will? Moral responsibility?
Predictability
Problem for psychology: Unpredictability?
Mechanistic model
Problem for psychology: Are “actions” different from
“happenings”?

13. How psychology compares with the
other sciences
Comparison of assumptions
(Elizabeth Valentine, 1992)
Theoretical assumptions
Systematicity
Problems for psychology: Diversity, multiplicity of variables?
Reflexivity?
Generality
Problem for psychology: Psychological theories contingent on
space and time? Uniqueness of individual?
Falsifiability
Problem for psychology: Indirect observation? Major schools of
psychology characterized by non-falsifiability?

14. How psychology compares with the
other sciences
Comparison of assumptions
(Elizabeth Valentine, 1992)
Methodological/empirical assumptions
Observation
Problems for psychology: Psychological entities not open to
direct observation? Reflexivity?
Measurement
Problem for psychology: Non-quantifiability of the non-
physical?
Experimentation
Problem for psychology: Control?

15. How psychology compares with the
other sciences
Comparison of assumptions
(Elizabeth Valentine, 1992)
Conclusion:
Psychology’s possible problems are of degree rather
than kind, rendering psychology a competent
science

16. Summary
Science is not a subculture per se, and cannot be
identified on the basis of appearances alone
Pseudoscience often manifests the appearances of science, without
being scientific in the true sense
Science is a philosophy or practice aimed at
systematically producing unbiased information
Pseudoscience is rarely aimed at reducing bias
Science is characterised by theoretical assumptions
about how knowledge is best acquired
Formal psychology shares these assumptions, and so is very much a
science
Science expects human fallibility and tries to work
around it
Pseudoscience typically ignores human fallibility, and/or falsely accuses
science of claiming to be infallible

17. Case Studies:
Examples of Psychology-related
Pseudoscience

18. Case Studies from
Outside Mainstream Psychology:
1. Complementary and alternative
medicine/therapies

19. Complementary and alternative
medicine/therapies
CAM = “a group of diverse medical and health care systems,
Five NCCAM categories:
Category Examples
Alternative medical systems Homoeopathy, acupuncture, Ayurveda
Mind–body interventions Deep meditation, psychic healing, quantum
healing, autogenic training, Tai Chi
Biologically based therapies Herbal medicine, other digested
supplements
Manipulative and body- Chiropractic, osteopathy, massage therapy,
based methods craniosacral therapy
Energy therapies Crystal therapy, bio-energy healing,
magnetic therapy, Reiki, Qi Gong

20. Complementary and alternative
medicine/therapies

21. Complementary and alternative
medicine/therapies
Most common? acupuncture, homeopathy,
chiropractic; herbal medicine; bioenergy healing;
reflexology; crystal therapy; aromatherapy

22. Complementary and alternative
medicine/therapies
Most common? acupuncture, homeopathy,
chiropractic; herbal medicine; bioenergy healing;
reflexology; crystal therapy; aromatherapy
Other examples: autogenic training, Alexander
technique, acupressure, applied kinesiology,
Ayurveda, Bach flower remedies, Bowen technique,
bio-magnetic therapy, biodynamic massage, Buteyko
Preath therapy, craniosacral therapy, Chi Kung (no
contact), colour analysis therapy, dowsing, energy
balancing…

23. Complementary and alternative
medicine/therapies
Most common? acupuncture, homeopathy,
chiropractic; herbal medicine; bioenergy healing;
reflexology; crystal therapy; aromatherapy
Other examples: autogenic training, Alexander
technique, acupressure, applied kinesiology, Ayurveda,
Bach flower remedies, Bowen technique, bio-magnetic
therapy, biodynamic massage, Buteyko Preath therapy,
craniosacral therapy, Chi Kung (no contact), colour
analysis therapy, dowsing, energy balancing, electro-
crystal therapy, iridology, Indian head massage,
kinesiology, the Melchizedek method

24. Complementary and alternative
medicine/therapies
Most common? acupuncture, homeopathy,
chiropractic; herbal medicine; bioenergy healing;
reflexology; crystal therapy; aromatherapy
Other examples: autogenic training, Alexander
technique, acupressure, applied kinesiology, Ayurveda,
Bach flower remedies, Bowen technique, bio-magnetic
therapy, biodynamic massage, Buteyko Preath therapy,
craniosacral therapy, Chi Kung (no contact), colour analysis
therapy, dowsing, energy balancing, electro-crystal
therapy, iridology, Indian head massage, kinesiology, the
Melchizedek method, the metamorphic technique,
naturopathy, nutritional therapy, on-site massage, pilates,
polarity therapy, Qi Gong…

25. Complementary and alternative
medicine/therapies
Most common? acupuncture, homeopathy,
chiropractic; herbal medicine; bioenergy healing;
reflexology; crystal therapy; aromatherapy
Other examples: autogenic training, Alexander technique,
acupressure, applied kinesiology, Ayurveda, Bach flower remedies,
Bowen technique, bio-magnetic therapy, biodynamic massage, Buteyko
Preath therapy, craniosacral therapy, Chi Kung (no contact), colour
analysis therapy, dowsing, energy balancing, electro-crystal therapy,
iridology, Indian head massage, kinesiology, the Melchizedek method,
the metamorphic technique, naturopathy, nutritional therapy, on-site
massage, pilates, polarity therapy, Qi Gong, Pranic healing, Reichian
therapy, Reiki, spiritual healing, Shiatsu, Shen therapy, touch for health,
Tai Chi,

26. Complementary and alternative
medicine/therapies
Most common? acupuncture, homeopathy,
chiropractic; herbal medicine; bioenergy healing;
reflexology; crystal therapy; aromatherapy
Other examples: autogenic training, Alexander technique, acupressure,
applied kinesiology, Ayurveda, Bach flower remedies, Bowen technique, bio-
magnetic therapy, biodynamic massage, Buteyko Preath therapy, craniosacral
therapy, Chi Kung (no contact), colour analysis therapy, dowsing, energy
balancing, electro-crystal therapy, iridology, Indian head massage, kinesiology,
the Melchizedek method, the metamorphic technique, naturopathy, nutritional
therapy, on-site massage, pilates, polarity therapy, Qi Gong , Pranic healing,
Reichian therapy, Reiki, spiritual healing, Shiatsu, Shen therapy, touch for
health, Tai Chi (non-contact), trigger point therapy, Tuina, zero balancing

27. PS409
Psychology, Science,
& Pseudoscience
Dr Brian Hughes
School of Psychology
brian.hughes@nuigalway.ie @b_m_hughes