1. Ions are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons to form electrically charged particles. Ionic compounds have high melting points and conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water. 2. Transition metal hydroxides are insoluble in water and form precipitates when a soluble transition metal compound is mixed with sodium hydroxide solution. 3. Spectroscopy studies the patterns of light emitted from heated samples to identify elements and discover new elements like rubidium and caesium.

1. ChemistryAdditional(C2)
Calculating RAM
The RAM is the Relative Atomic Mass. The RAM is shown on the periodic table.
What is an isotope?
Isotopes areatoms of an element that havethe same number of Protons and
Electrons but havedifferent numbers of Neutrons. They have the sameatomic
number but have a different atomic mass.
What is an Ionic Bond?
The electron is Transferred

2. How is an ion formed?
Ions (electrically charged particles) are formed when an atoms loose or gain
electrons. Metal atoms formpositive ions, and non-metal atoms form negative
ions.
-ide, -ite and –ate
Sulfide
Sulfite
Sulfate
Ionic Compounds Properties
 High melting points
 Conducts electricity when molten or dissolved in water
Precipitation
Transition metal hydroxides are insoluble in water.
If a solution of any soluble transition metal compound is mixed with sodium
hydroxidesolution then we get a displacement reaction. The sodiumis the
more reactive metal, and displaces the transition metal fromits compound.
The transition metal hydroxideis produced as a result. As this is insoluble in
water it appears as a solid in the liquid. A solid produced in a liquid in this way
is called a precipitate.
Contains Sulfur
It’s a Mono-tomic ion (by itself)
S
2-
Contains Sulfur Contains oxygen
SO
2-
3
Contains
Sulfur
SO
2-
4

3. Soluble and Insoluble Salts
Soluble salts form clear solutions. Insolublesalts formcloudy solutions.
How to remember:
SPAN
Sodium
Potassium Soluble
Ammonium
Nitrate Insoluble
Chlorides and sulphates are also soluble except for:
Silver Chloride
Lead Chloride
Lead Sulfate
Calcium Sulfate
BariumSulfate
Carbonates and Hydroxides areinsoluble except for:
SodiumCarbonate
PotassiumCarbonate
Ammonium Carbonate

4. Barium Meal
Patients often are required to have a bariummeal before an x-ray as it reflects
the x-rays and allows the doctor to see a picture of the gut. Barium is toxic but
it is insoluble and therefore cannot get into the blood stream.
Flame Test Colours
Yellow Lilac Red/Orange Blue/Green
Tests for Carbonates, Sulphates and Chlorides
Carbonates ( ) = Carbon dioxide is presentif the gas turns the lime water
milky.
Sulfates ( ) = Add dilute HCL and bariumChloride solution. A white
precipitate of BariumSulfate will formif it was a Sulfate.
Chloride (Cl-) = Add dilute nitric acid and silver nitrate solution. If a white
precipitate of silver chloride is present, chlorine ions are present.
Spectroscopy
The patterns of light emitted froma headed sample are studied. Each element
has a unique pattern. This helps scientists to identify an element quickly and
efficiently and can also help them to discover new elements. Rubidium and
caesium werediscovered using this method.

5. Covalent Bond
The electron is Shared
What is a molecule
A group of atoms bonded together.
Ionic and Covalent Substances

6. Simple Molecular Substances and Giant Covalent
Structures
Properties of simple molecular substances
Low melting and boiling points - This is because the weak intermolecular forces
break down easily.
Non-conductive - Substances with a simple molecular structuredo not
conduct electricity. This is because they do not have any free electrons or an
overall electric charge.
Properties of giant covalent structures
Very high melting points - Substances with giant covalent structures havevery
high melting points, because a lot of strong covalent bonds mustbe broken.
Graphite, for example, has a melting point of morethan 3,600ºC.
Variable conductivity - Diamond does not conductelectricity. Graphite contains
free electrons, so it does conduct electricity. Silicon is semi-conductive- that is,
midway between non-conductiveand conductive.
Graphite and Carbon Properties
Graphite
Graphite is a formof carbon in which the carbon atoms formlayers. These
layers can slide over each other, so graphiteis much softer than diamond. Itis
used in pencils, and as a lubricant. Each carbon atom in a layer is joined to only
three other carbon atoms. Graphite conducts electricity.
Diamond
Diamond is a form of carbon in which each carbon atom is joined to four other
carbon atoms, forming a giant covalent structure. As a result, diamond is very
hard and has a high melting point. Itdoes not conduct electricity.

7. Miscible and immiscible liquids.
Miscible liquids can mix completely. Immiscible
liquids cannot. To separate immiscible liquids, you
could use a separation funnel. To useit, you open the
valve and let the firstliquid run out. Then close the
valve, replace the beaker and open it again. The
second liquid will then run into the second beaker.
Fractional distillation
Fractional distillation can be used to separate miscible liquids. This is due to
the differentboiling points of each liquids. The liquid with the lowest boiling
points will separate first. Then the next liquid will boil after that.
Fractional distillation of air-
Air is made up of:
To separate these:
 Air is filtered to removedust
 The air is then cooled to -200°c
 Water condenses first
 Carbon dioxide then freezes
 The remaining mixtures go into a fractional distillation column. The
nitrogen and oxygen are then heated. Due to the differentheats at
either end of the column and their different boiling points they both
separate at different ends of the column. Nitrogen will leave at the cold
end and oxygen will leave at the warmend

8. Paper Chromatography
Colours are put on a pencil line on a piece of paper. The
paper is then stood in solvent, ensuring the solventis
below the line. Then the colours will separate out. If the
colours are at the sameheight. Then they contain the same
colours.
Structure of metals
The atoms in a metal are regularly arranged and are held together with
metallic bonds. These metallic bonds means that the metal has a giant
structureconsisting of positive ions and free electrons. This is because the
metallic bond allows the outer electrons to become delocalised (Move freely).
This creates a sea of delocalised electrons. This means they are good
conductors as electrons can move freely through the metal. This giant
structuremeans there is a strong metallic bond which means it has a high
melting point. This also means it is insoluble.
The regularly arranged structuremeans layers can easily slide over each other.
Alkali Metals
Alkali metals are shown in group one in
the periodic table. Alkali metals softand
have low melting points.
Each of the alkali metals react to form
hydroxides in water as shown on the right.

9. Halogens
Halogens are found in group 7 of the periodic table. They all have7 electrons in
their outer shell. Their properties are as follows:
Halogens can react with metals to formmetal halides. They can also react with
hydrogen to formhydrogen halides. Hydrogen halides are solubleand can be
dissolved into water to formacidic solutions. For example hydrogen chloride
can be dissolved in water to formHCL hydrochloric acid.
The higer up group 7 the element is, the more
reactive it is. If a more reactive halogen reacts
with a solution containing a halide. That halogen
will be displaed.
Noble Gases
Noble gases arefound in group 0 of the
periodic table. They are colourless at room
temperature. They are also inert which
means they are very unreactive. This is
because they havea full outer shell and thereforedo not need to give or take
any electrons. They are also non-flammable.
Argon is used in filament lamps. This is because it is non-flammable and helps
the filament to not burn out as quick.
Helium can be used in party balloons this is becauseit has a low density which
allows it float.
Most Reactive
Least Reactive

10. Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
Rates of reaction
What effects the rate of reaction?

11. Catalytic converter
In a catalytic converter, harmfulgases react
with oxygen.
A clean gas is then let out. This is often used in
cars.
Rates of reaction graphs