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Emergency in Pediatrics

                                                              Yasinee Apiraknapanon

Common Emergency Problems
    Respiratory system
           Respiratory distress/ failure
           Asthmatic attack
           Croup
    Cardiovascular system
           Cardiac Arrest
           Bradyarrhythmias
           Tachyarrhythmia
           Shock
           Septic Shock
           Anaphylaxis Shock
    Metabolic Disturbances
           DKA
           Acute Renal Failure
    Neurological system
           Seizure
Respiratory Distress/ Failure




Management
    Conscious child with mild respiratory distress
            Humidified oxygen
            Low-flow devices (nasal cannula, simple mask, mask with reservoir bag)
            Monitor
    Moderate to severe respiratory distress or unconscious child
            On ET-tube                 Cuffed ETT size (mm): (age (y) /4) + 3
                                        Uncuffed size (mm): (age (y) /4) + 4
                                        Depth: age (y)/2 + 12
            SOPE-ME                    S:      Suction
                                        O:      Oxygen
                                        A:      Airway
                                        P:      Pharmacologic agents
                                        ME:     Monitoring Equipment
Acute Asthmatic Attack

                                                                                                                    กำลังเข้ำสู่ภำวะ
                                    Mild                           Moderate                      Severe
                                                                                                                  Respiratory arrest
อำกำร (Symptoms)
หายใจลาบาก                 ขณะเดิน                     ขณะพูด                     ขณะพัก
ท่านอน                     นอนราบได้                   ต้องนอนยกหัวสูง            นั่ง, นอนราบไม่ได้
การพูด                     ปกติ                        เป็นประโยคสั้น ๆ           เป็นคา ๆ
สติสัมปชัญญะ               อาจจะกระสับกระส่าย          กระสับกระส่าย              กระสับกระส่าย                ซึมหรือสับสน
อำกำรแสดง (Signs)
อัตราการหายใจ              เพิ่มขึ้น                   เพิ่มขึ้น                  เพิ่มขึ้นมาก
                           อัตราการหายใจในเด็ก
                                                       อายุ                       อัตราปกติ
                           ขึ้นกับอายุดังนี้
                                                       < 2 เดือน                  < 60 ครั้ง/นาที
                                                       2 – 12 เดือน               < 50 ครั้ง/นาที
                                                       1 – 5 ปี                   < 40 ครั้ง/นาที
                                                       6 – 8 ปี                   < 30 ครั้ง/นาที
การใช้กล้ามเนื้อช่วยเพิ่ม                                                                                      มีการเคลื่อนตัวของทรวงอก
                          ไม่มี                        มี                         มีมาก
แรงหายใจ                                                                                                       และหน้าท้องไม่สัมพันธ์กัน
                                                       เสียงดังและมักได้ยินตลอด   เสียงดังและได้ยินทั้งในขณะ
เสียง wheeze               เสียงดังพอควร                                                                       ไม่ได้ยินเสียง wheeze
                                                       ช่วงเวลาหายใจออก           หายใจเข้าและหายใจออก
ชีพจร (ครั้ง/นาที)         < 100                       100 – 120                  > 120                        หัวใจเต้นช้า
                           อัตราเต้นของชีพจรในเด็ก
                                                       อายุ                       อัตราปกติ
                           ขึ้นกับอายุดังนี้
                                                       2 – 12 เดือน               < 160 ครั้ง/นาที
                                                       1 – 2 ปี                   < 120 ครั้ง/นาที
                                                       2 – 8 ปี                   < 110 ครั้ง/นาที
                           ไม่มี                       อาจมีได้
Pulsus paradoxus                                                                  มักจะมี > 25 mm Hg ในผู้ใหญ่ และ 20–40 mm Hg ในเด็ก
                           (< 10 mm Hg)                (10–25 mm Hg)
กำรตรวจพิเศษ (Functional Assessment)
PEF
% predicted or             > 80%                       ประมาณ 50–80%              < 50%                        มีค่าต่ามากหรือวัดไม่ได้เลย
% personal best
PaO2 (on air)              ปกติ                        > 60 mm Hg                 < 60 mm Hg
PaCO2                      < 42 mm Hg                  < 42 mm Hg                 > 42 mm Hg
SaO2% (on air)             > 95%                       91 – 95%                   < 91%
Croup

                                                                  Score
  Signs and Symptoms
                            0                        1                                        2

Cough                      ไม่มี               ร้องเสียงแหบ                              ไอเสียงก้อง

Retraction                 ไม่มี   Nasal flaring, suprasternal retraction   1 + subcostal & intercostal retraction

Oxygenation                ไม่มี           Cyanosis in room air                   Cyanosis in 40% oxygen

Upper airway obstruction   ไม่มี                inspiratory                        Inspiratory + expiratory

Pulmonary breath sound     ปกติ        Harsh breath sound/ ronchi                  Delayed, poor air entry
Cardiac Arrest




                                                                                             CPR Quality

                                                                                   Push hard, push fast (≥100/min),
                                                                                        complete chest recoil

                                                                                      Depth ≥1/3 of AP diameter

                                                                                       Minimize interruptions in
                                                                                            compressions

                                                                                      Avoid excessive ventilation

                                                                                 Rotate compressor every 2 minutes

                                                                                       If no advance airway 15:2
                                                                                     compression-ventilation ratio
                                                                                If advance airway 8-10 beats/min with
                                                                                     continuous chest compression




                                                Shock and Drugs

                                         Shock Energy for Defibrillation

                                      First shock 2 J/kg, Second shock 4 J/kg

                               Subsequent shock ≥4 J/kg, max 10 J/kg or adult dose

                                                  Drug therapy

             Epinephrine IO/IV dose 0.01 mg/kg (0.1 ml/kg of 1:10,000 concentration)every 3-5 minutes

                        Epinephrine ET dose 0.1 mg/kg (0.1 ml/kg of 1:1,000 concentration)

Amiodarone IO/IV dose 5 mg/kg bolus during cardiac arrest. May repeat up to 2 times for refractory VF/ pulseless VT
Bradyarrhythmias
Tachyarrhythmia

        Narrow complex                           Wide complex
         ≤ 0.09second                            ≥ 0.09 second

        Sinus tachycardia                     Ventricular tachycardia
Supraventricular tachycardia (SVT)     Supraventricular tachycardia with
          Atrial flutter                     aberrant conduction
Shock

Signs and symptoms

 ORGAN SYSTEM                  ↓PERFUSION                   ↓↓PERFUSION                    ↓↓↓PERFUSION
     Central nervous                                                                 Agitated/confused, stuporous,
                                      —               Restless, apathetic, anxious
         system                                                                                  coma
       Respiration                    —                    ↑Ventilation                    ↑↑Ventilation
                                                       Compensated metabolic          Uncompensated metabolic
      Metabolism                      —
                                                             acidemia                        acidemia
          Gut                         —                        ↓Motility                       Ileus
                              ↓Urine volume
         Kidney                                        Oliguria (<0.5 mL/kg/hr)             Oliguria/anuria
                          ↑Urinary specific gravity
                                                                                        Mottled, cyanotic, cold
          Skin            Delayed capillary refill         Cool extremities
                                                                                              extremities
     Cardiovascular                                          ↑↑Heart rate               ↑↑Heart rate, ↓blood
                                ↑Heart rate
        system                                            ↓Peripheral pulses         pressure, central pulses only


Fluid Resuscitation

                   Type                          Fluid Volume (ml/kg)                         Rate

 -      Hypovolemic shock (non DKA)
                                                          20 ml
 -      Distributive shock                                                        In 5 – 10 min (repeated dose)
                                                       (repeated)
 -      Obstructive shock
 -      Cardiogenic shock                         5 – 10 ml (repeated)                    In 10 – 20 min

 -      Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)                   10 – 20 ml                             In 1 hr

 -      Toxic substance, medication               5 – 10 ml (repeated)                    In 10 – 20 min
Inotropic Agents
Sepsis and Septic Shock

Stage of Sepsis
     SIRS >> two or more of the following: BT, HR, RR, WBC
     Sepsis: SIRS + suspected or culture - documented infection
     Severe sepsis: sepsis + organ dysfunction (ARDS, CVS, others at least 2 organ)
     Septic shock: sepsis + cardiovascular organ dysfunction
     MODS: dysfunction of 2 or more systems
Anaphylaxis
Diabetic Ketoacidosis

Criteria Diagnosis
     Serum glucose > 250 mg/dL + Ketone in serum and urine + Acidosis: HCO3 <15 mmol/L or
      venous pH <7.3
               Severity Assessment              Mild            Moderate             Severe

         Plasma glucose (mg/dL)                 >250               >250               >250

         Venous pH                            7.20-7.29         7.10-7.19             <7.10

         Serum bicarbonate (mmol/L)            10-14.9            5.0-9.9              <5.0

         Urine ketone                          Positive          Positive            Positive

         Serum ketone                          Positive          Positive            Positive

         Anion gap                               >10               >12                 >12

         Alteration of conscious                Alert          Alert/ drowsy       Stupor/ coma


Treatment
     Fluid and electrolyte therapy
              0.9% NaCl 10-20 ml/kg/ hr for 1-2 hr
              2 day maintenance + 7-10% deficit in 48 hr (avoid over 4 L/m2/day)
              Add 5% dextrose when BS 250-300 mg/dL
              K replacement after voiding
     Insulin
              Start after initial rehydration 0.1 U/kg/kr
              Reduce blood glucose 75-100 mg/dL/hr, maintain blood glucose 150-200 mg/dL
     Correct acidosis: 7.5% NaHCO3 infusion when shock or persistent/ severe acidosis after initial fluid
        resuscitation (HCO3 <5 mmol/L, pH <6.9)
     Monitoring:
              Vital signs, blood glucose q 1 hrs.
              Electrolyte, blood gas, intake and urine output, urine ketone q 2-4 hrs.
     Precipitating factor >> infection, stop insulin, diet
     Complication monitoring: hypoglycemia, persistent acidosis, cerebral edema, hypokalemia
Acute Renal Failure


Complication in ARF
    Metabolic: acidosis, hypocalcaemia, hyperphosphatemia, hyperkalemia, uremia, hyperuricemia,
     hypermagnesemia
    CVS: arrhythmias, hypervolemia/ hypovolemia, CHF, uremic pericarditis, hypertension
    Respiratory: pneumonia, uremic pleuritis, pulmonary edema
    GI: hemorrhage, N/V, malnutrition
    Neurological: mental status changes and seizure
    Hematologic: anemia, coagulopathy
    Infectious: catheter-related infection, septicemia, pneumonia, UTI


Treatment
    Provide supportive Rx
             Stabilize and monitor closely: I/O, BW, electrolyte
             Prevent sepsis: limit IV line, remove indwelling urinary catheter, c/s periodically,
              administer ATB if indicated
             Administer ulcer prophylaxis
             Adjust drug according to renal function (usually calculate based on GFR < 10
                ml/min/1.73 m2)
    Prerenal renal failure
             Administer fluid challenge
                    -    Use isotonic solution or 5%D/N/2 then administer 25% of MN fluid in 2 hrs.
                    -    If urine output in 1st 2 hrs. > 2 ml/100 calories indicated prerenal cause
                    -    If urine output < 2 ml/100 calories, administer 10% mannital 5 ml/kg in 1-1.5
                         hrs. + furosemide 2 mg/kg iv
             Inotropic support for CHF
    Postrenal failure
             Removal of obstruction
             Stabilization of electrolyte abnormalities and treatment post-obstructive uropathy
             Treatment voiding dysfunction and UTI
 Intrinsic renal failure
         Restrict fluids: insensible loss (25-30% maintenance or 400 ml/m2 as 5-10%D/W) + Urine
             output (ml for ml as 0.45% NaCl)
         Treatment hyponatremia: maintain serum Na+ 130-135 mmol/L, restrict free water
         Dopamine 0.5-4 mcg/kg/min, synergistic effect with furosemide
 Metabolic acidosis
         Replace base deficit if pH<7.2 or HCO3 <12 mmol/L
         Base deficit = 0.3 x BW x (HCO3 desired - HCO3 observed) >> ½ over 2-3 h, rest over next 24 hrs.
 Hyperphosphatemia
         Calcium carbonate 300-400 mg/kg/day oral
         Treatment tetany
 Hyperkalemia




 Hypertension
Seizure

Management
    Assessment
          •   Airway, breathing, circulation, dextrose, fever
    Investigation
          •   Anticonvulsant concentration, CBC, BS, Ca, Mg, kidney and liver function, blood
              gas(optional), saved serum for toxicology or virology, emergency neuroimaging studies(for
              unknown cause—stable condition)
Emergency in pediatrics
Emergency in pediatrics

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Emergency in pediatrics

  • 1. Emergency in Pediatrics Yasinee Apiraknapanon Common Emergency Problems  Respiratory system  Respiratory distress/ failure  Asthmatic attack  Croup  Cardiovascular system  Cardiac Arrest  Bradyarrhythmias  Tachyarrhythmia  Shock  Septic Shock  Anaphylaxis Shock  Metabolic Disturbances  DKA  Acute Renal Failure  Neurological system  Seizure
  • 2. Respiratory Distress/ Failure Management  Conscious child with mild respiratory distress  Humidified oxygen  Low-flow devices (nasal cannula, simple mask, mask with reservoir bag)  Monitor  Moderate to severe respiratory distress or unconscious child  On ET-tube Cuffed ETT size (mm): (age (y) /4) + 3 Uncuffed size (mm): (age (y) /4) + 4 Depth: age (y)/2 + 12  SOPE-ME S: Suction O: Oxygen A: Airway P: Pharmacologic agents ME: Monitoring Equipment
  • 3. Acute Asthmatic Attack กำลังเข้ำสู่ภำวะ Mild Moderate Severe Respiratory arrest อำกำร (Symptoms) หายใจลาบาก ขณะเดิน ขณะพูด ขณะพัก ท่านอน นอนราบได้ ต้องนอนยกหัวสูง นั่ง, นอนราบไม่ได้ การพูด ปกติ เป็นประโยคสั้น ๆ เป็นคา ๆ สติสัมปชัญญะ อาจจะกระสับกระส่าย กระสับกระส่าย กระสับกระส่าย ซึมหรือสับสน อำกำรแสดง (Signs) อัตราการหายใจ เพิ่มขึ้น เพิ่มขึ้น เพิ่มขึ้นมาก อัตราการหายใจในเด็ก อายุ อัตราปกติ ขึ้นกับอายุดังนี้ < 2 เดือน < 60 ครั้ง/นาที 2 – 12 เดือน < 50 ครั้ง/นาที 1 – 5 ปี < 40 ครั้ง/นาที 6 – 8 ปี < 30 ครั้ง/นาที การใช้กล้ามเนื้อช่วยเพิ่ม มีการเคลื่อนตัวของทรวงอก ไม่มี มี มีมาก แรงหายใจ และหน้าท้องไม่สัมพันธ์กัน เสียงดังและมักได้ยินตลอด เสียงดังและได้ยินทั้งในขณะ เสียง wheeze เสียงดังพอควร ไม่ได้ยินเสียง wheeze ช่วงเวลาหายใจออก หายใจเข้าและหายใจออก ชีพจร (ครั้ง/นาที) < 100 100 – 120 > 120 หัวใจเต้นช้า อัตราเต้นของชีพจรในเด็ก อายุ อัตราปกติ ขึ้นกับอายุดังนี้ 2 – 12 เดือน < 160 ครั้ง/นาที 1 – 2 ปี < 120 ครั้ง/นาที 2 – 8 ปี < 110 ครั้ง/นาที ไม่มี อาจมีได้ Pulsus paradoxus มักจะมี > 25 mm Hg ในผู้ใหญ่ และ 20–40 mm Hg ในเด็ก (< 10 mm Hg) (10–25 mm Hg) กำรตรวจพิเศษ (Functional Assessment) PEF % predicted or > 80% ประมาณ 50–80% < 50% มีค่าต่ามากหรือวัดไม่ได้เลย % personal best PaO2 (on air) ปกติ > 60 mm Hg < 60 mm Hg PaCO2 < 42 mm Hg < 42 mm Hg > 42 mm Hg SaO2% (on air) > 95% 91 – 95% < 91%
  • 4.
  • 5. Croup Score Signs and Symptoms 0 1 2 Cough ไม่มี ร้องเสียงแหบ ไอเสียงก้อง Retraction ไม่มี Nasal flaring, suprasternal retraction 1 + subcostal & intercostal retraction Oxygenation ไม่มี Cyanosis in room air Cyanosis in 40% oxygen Upper airway obstruction ไม่มี inspiratory Inspiratory + expiratory Pulmonary breath sound ปกติ Harsh breath sound/ ronchi Delayed, poor air entry
  • 6. Cardiac Arrest CPR Quality Push hard, push fast (≥100/min), complete chest recoil Depth ≥1/3 of AP diameter Minimize interruptions in compressions Avoid excessive ventilation Rotate compressor every 2 minutes If no advance airway 15:2 compression-ventilation ratio If advance airway 8-10 beats/min with continuous chest compression Shock and Drugs Shock Energy for Defibrillation First shock 2 J/kg, Second shock 4 J/kg Subsequent shock ≥4 J/kg, max 10 J/kg or adult dose Drug therapy Epinephrine IO/IV dose 0.01 mg/kg (0.1 ml/kg of 1:10,000 concentration)every 3-5 minutes Epinephrine ET dose 0.1 mg/kg (0.1 ml/kg of 1:1,000 concentration) Amiodarone IO/IV dose 5 mg/kg bolus during cardiac arrest. May repeat up to 2 times for refractory VF/ pulseless VT
  • 8. Tachyarrhythmia Narrow complex Wide complex ≤ 0.09second ≥ 0.09 second Sinus tachycardia Ventricular tachycardia Supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) Supraventricular tachycardia with Atrial flutter aberrant conduction
  • 9. Shock Signs and symptoms ORGAN SYSTEM ↓PERFUSION ↓↓PERFUSION ↓↓↓PERFUSION Central nervous Agitated/confused, stuporous, — Restless, apathetic, anxious system coma Respiration — ↑Ventilation ↑↑Ventilation Compensated metabolic Uncompensated metabolic Metabolism — acidemia acidemia Gut — ↓Motility Ileus ↓Urine volume Kidney Oliguria (<0.5 mL/kg/hr) Oliguria/anuria ↑Urinary specific gravity Mottled, cyanotic, cold Skin Delayed capillary refill Cool extremities extremities Cardiovascular ↑↑Heart rate ↑↑Heart rate, ↓blood ↑Heart rate system ↓Peripheral pulses pressure, central pulses only Fluid Resuscitation Type Fluid Volume (ml/kg) Rate - Hypovolemic shock (non DKA) 20 ml - Distributive shock In 5 – 10 min (repeated dose) (repeated) - Obstructive shock - Cardiogenic shock 5 – 10 ml (repeated) In 10 – 20 min - Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) 10 – 20 ml In 1 hr - Toxic substance, medication 5 – 10 ml (repeated) In 10 – 20 min
  • 11. Sepsis and Septic Shock Stage of Sepsis  SIRS >> two or more of the following: BT, HR, RR, WBC  Sepsis: SIRS + suspected or culture - documented infection  Severe sepsis: sepsis + organ dysfunction (ARDS, CVS, others at least 2 organ)  Septic shock: sepsis + cardiovascular organ dysfunction  MODS: dysfunction of 2 or more systems
  • 13.
  • 14. Diabetic Ketoacidosis Criteria Diagnosis  Serum glucose > 250 mg/dL + Ketone in serum and urine + Acidosis: HCO3 <15 mmol/L or venous pH <7.3 Severity Assessment Mild Moderate Severe Plasma glucose (mg/dL) >250 >250 >250 Venous pH 7.20-7.29 7.10-7.19 <7.10 Serum bicarbonate (mmol/L) 10-14.9 5.0-9.9 <5.0 Urine ketone Positive Positive Positive Serum ketone Positive Positive Positive Anion gap >10 >12 >12 Alteration of conscious Alert Alert/ drowsy Stupor/ coma Treatment  Fluid and electrolyte therapy  0.9% NaCl 10-20 ml/kg/ hr for 1-2 hr  2 day maintenance + 7-10% deficit in 48 hr (avoid over 4 L/m2/day)  Add 5% dextrose when BS 250-300 mg/dL  K replacement after voiding  Insulin  Start after initial rehydration 0.1 U/kg/kr  Reduce blood glucose 75-100 mg/dL/hr, maintain blood glucose 150-200 mg/dL  Correct acidosis: 7.5% NaHCO3 infusion when shock or persistent/ severe acidosis after initial fluid resuscitation (HCO3 <5 mmol/L, pH <6.9)  Monitoring:  Vital signs, blood glucose q 1 hrs.  Electrolyte, blood gas, intake and urine output, urine ketone q 2-4 hrs.  Precipitating factor >> infection, stop insulin, diet  Complication monitoring: hypoglycemia, persistent acidosis, cerebral edema, hypokalemia
  • 15. Acute Renal Failure Complication in ARF  Metabolic: acidosis, hypocalcaemia, hyperphosphatemia, hyperkalemia, uremia, hyperuricemia, hypermagnesemia  CVS: arrhythmias, hypervolemia/ hypovolemia, CHF, uremic pericarditis, hypertension  Respiratory: pneumonia, uremic pleuritis, pulmonary edema  GI: hemorrhage, N/V, malnutrition  Neurological: mental status changes and seizure  Hematologic: anemia, coagulopathy  Infectious: catheter-related infection, septicemia, pneumonia, UTI Treatment  Provide supportive Rx  Stabilize and monitor closely: I/O, BW, electrolyte  Prevent sepsis: limit IV line, remove indwelling urinary catheter, c/s periodically, administer ATB if indicated  Administer ulcer prophylaxis  Adjust drug according to renal function (usually calculate based on GFR < 10 ml/min/1.73 m2)  Prerenal renal failure  Administer fluid challenge - Use isotonic solution or 5%D/N/2 then administer 25% of MN fluid in 2 hrs. - If urine output in 1st 2 hrs. > 2 ml/100 calories indicated prerenal cause - If urine output < 2 ml/100 calories, administer 10% mannital 5 ml/kg in 1-1.5 hrs. + furosemide 2 mg/kg iv  Inotropic support for CHF  Postrenal failure  Removal of obstruction  Stabilization of electrolyte abnormalities and treatment post-obstructive uropathy  Treatment voiding dysfunction and UTI
  • 16.  Intrinsic renal failure  Restrict fluids: insensible loss (25-30% maintenance or 400 ml/m2 as 5-10%D/W) + Urine output (ml for ml as 0.45% NaCl)  Treatment hyponatremia: maintain serum Na+ 130-135 mmol/L, restrict free water  Dopamine 0.5-4 mcg/kg/min, synergistic effect with furosemide  Metabolic acidosis  Replace base deficit if pH<7.2 or HCO3 <12 mmol/L  Base deficit = 0.3 x BW x (HCO3 desired - HCO3 observed) >> ½ over 2-3 h, rest over next 24 hrs.  Hyperphosphatemia  Calcium carbonate 300-400 mg/kg/day oral  Treatment tetany  Hyperkalemia  Hypertension
  • 17. Seizure Management  Assessment • Airway, breathing, circulation, dextrose, fever  Investigation • Anticonvulsant concentration, CBC, BS, Ca, Mg, kidney and liver function, blood gas(optional), saved serum for toxicology or virology, emergency neuroimaging studies(for unknown cause—stable condition)