Lev Vygotsky
The child begins to
perceive the world not
only through his eyes
but also through his
speech.

Understanding
English Words,
Phrases, Clauses,
and Sentence
Structure

Table of Contents
Part 1: Diagnostic
assessment
Part 2: Phrases, Clauses, and
Sentence Structure
Part 3: Language Contrasts

Identify the subject and the predicate in
each sentence
a. The man had a one-week fast after losing
his lovely wife
b. The baseball player hit such a skilled
homerun that gave the team the
championship.
c. Living in a town where no one respects
civic rules has become an impossible task
d. The naughty pilots fly across the field
every time they have a chance.
e. A society is often affected by people’s
way of thinking

Translate the following sentences into
English
a. El hombre ayunó por una semana después de
perder a su adorable esposa.
b. El beisbolista hizo un homerun tan hábil que le
dió el Campeonato al equipo.
c. El vivir en un pueblo en donde nadie respeta las
reglas civiles se convirtió en una tarea imposible
d. Los pilotos traviesos vuelan por campo cada vez
que tienen oportunidad
e. Frecuentemente, se afecta a una sociedad por la
manera de pensar de su sociedad.

The man had a fast after losing his
lovely wife
1. In this statement (a) the word “LOVELY” is a / an
a) Noun b) Verb c) Adjective
d) adverb e) Determiner
2. In this statement the Word “FAST” is a / an
a) Noun b) Verb c) Adjective
d) adverb e) Determiner

The baseball player wisely hit a homerun that
gave the team the championship.
1. In this statement (b) the word “The” is a / an
a) Noun b) Verb c) Adjective d)
adverb e) Determiner
2. In this statement (b) the word “skilled” is a / an
a) Noun b) Verb c) Adjective d)
adverb e) Determiner
3. In this statment “The team” is a / an
a) direct object b) indirect object c) complement

Living in a town where no one respects civic
rules has become an impossible task
1. In this statement, which
word or words is the
subject of the sentence?
a) Town
b) Living in a town where no
one respects civic rules
c) Living in a town
d) No one
2 In this statement (c) the
words “Living in a town
where no one respect civil
rules” is a / an
a) Noun Phrase
b) Verb Phrase
c) Adjective Phrase
d) adverb phrase

The naughty children fly across the
field every time they have a chance.
1. In statement (d) the word “fly” is a / an
a) Noun b) Verb c) Adjective d)
adverb e) Determiner
2. In statement (d) underline which word can only be
the subject of the sentence.
a) The naughty pilots b) The naughty
children fly c) both

Introduction
Difficulty with sentence structure is often
times what results in incomprehensible
sentences and failure to convey meaning.

Phrases
1. a noun (and its modifiers)
2. a verb (and the words that follow)
an interesting dream
my magically delicious Lucky Charms
the City College book fair
many culturally diverse students
those poisonous red apples on the table
talented and helpful tutors
the drawer next to the bed
bands
were eaten by the boy next door
attend this school
will be in high demand
is always in October
were for Snow White and not for you
has been on my mind all day
open
have been playing all night long
Combine the noun phrases
and verb phrases to make
complete sentences.

Phrases Clauses
Clauses
A clause is a subject / verb combination. Clauses
can be dependent or independent (More
explanation on this later)  First, let’s practice
distinguishing phrases and clauses. Determine
which of the examples are phrases and which are
clauses.
when I go to the store
he cried
the little kitten sitting in the shade of
the tree
they didn’t understand the instructions
stayed out all night

Clauses
There are two types of clauses: independent and
dependent. An independent clause, or main
clause, is a subject/verb combination that makes a
complete sentence. A dependent clause cannot
stand alone, and must be attached to an
independent clause.
In the following sentence, which one is the main
clause?
Example 1: As soon as I woke up, I made the
coffee.
If you said I made the coffee, then you are correct!

14
Complete Sentences
A complete sentence includes:
1. Subject (noun)
2. Verb (may need a direct object or complement)
3. Complete Thought/Idea
3. Example 1: Marcel understands the importance
of attending class regularly.
Example 2: Shu, Tony, and Ana studied together
after class.
subject verb
verb
subject

Not all complete sentences have a stated subject.
The command form (also known as the imperative)
has you as the implied subject. This sentence
structure is not common in academic writing…
except perhaps as a “hook” in an introductory
paragraph. For example: Be careful!
Moreover, certain authors and genres do not
adhere to traditional sentence structure and may
use phrases and dependent clauses as complete
sentences. For example: Because I said so.

16
Subjects
The subject may be
 A single noun
 A noun phrase
 A pronoun
 Two or more nouns, noun phrases or pronouns
 A gerund (verb + -ing)
 An infinitive (To + verb)
.
College is challenging.
The English Center can help you succeed.
It is open Monday through Friday.
Online tutoring is available on weekends.
Rose, Todd, Humberto, and Jess are all tutors there.
To err is human.

ESOL students frequently have incorrect sentence
structure due to missing subjects in their
sentences. It is often times the “dummy” it or
there that is missing. For example: It is raining
outside.
Additionally, it is common for ESOL students to use
a prepositional phrase as a subject. For example:
In the morning is a good time to take classes.

Scene One
A student’s sentence is In the article says global
health is important. There are many ways to assist
him in correcting this error. Here’s one:
Tutor: What is the subject of this sentence?
Student: “Article.”
Tutor: Not quite. What part of speech is “in?”
Student: A preposition.
Tutor: Correct. Prepositions need a noun for an object, and
“article” is the object of the preposition. So it can’t be the
subject of the sentence. So what is the subject of the
sentence? This is a trick question.
Student: There isn’t one.
Tutor: That’s right! So how can you correct this?
Student: I can take away the preposition and just write, “The
article says global health is important.”

Scene Two
A student’s sentence is In the article says global
health is important. There are many ways to assist
him in correcting this error. Here’s another:
Tutor: What is the subject of this sentence?
Student: “Article.”
Tutor: Not quite. What is the verb of the sentence?
Student: says.
Tutor: Correct. So what is the subject?
Student: Global health.
Tutor: Not quite. The subject has to go before the verb.
Student: There isn’t a subject.
Tutor: Correct! So how can we change it?
Student: I can add “it” so that the sentence says “In the
article, IT says global health is important.”
Tutor: Perfect.

Verbs
There are different categories of verbs,
some of which require a direct object or
complement to make the sentence
complete. These are called transitive verbs.
(Memory trick: Transitive verbs are like a
train; they need a caboose.) Intransitive
verbs do not require a direct object or
complement.
Note: ESOL students don’t need to know
the terms “transitive” and “intransitive.”

Direct Objects
A direct object is the noun that is receiving
the action of the verb.
1. Some verbs must take an object
2. Some verbs may take an object. It’s correct
with or without.
3. Some verbs cannot take an object
*We analyzed.
We wrote.
She disappeared.
*She disappeared the dog.
We analyzed the data.

ESOL students may have difficulty understanding
these differences as there isn’t a logical reason
why certain verbs take direct objects and others do
not. Helping them identify and memorize common
verbs and how they are used will improve their
writing.

Complements
A complement is a word or words that follow the
verb but aren’t direct objects. Depending on the
verb, some are obligatory.
Example 1: Rufus seems.
Example 1 is not a complete sentence because the
verb requires a complement. The example should
be: Rufus seems extraordinarily sleepy.
Example 2: Rufus walks.
This is a complete sentence. However, we can add
a complement if we want to be more precise. The
example could be: Rufus walks with vigor.

Complements
There are three types of phrases that can act as
complements.
1. A noun or noun phrase
1. George Michael is a brilliant lyricist.
2. An adjective or adjective phrase
1. George Michael is brilliant.
3. A prepositional phrase
1. George Michael is on tour.

It’s important to distinguish between direct objects
and complements as knowing which verbs take a
direct object is vital when forming the passive.
Example 1: Rufus is a good dog.
A good dog is not the direct object as it is not
receiving the action of the verb. Thus, it cannot be
made passive.
Example 2: Rufus fetched the ball.
Here, the ball is the direct object, and the sentence
can be made passive: The ball was fetched by
Rufus. (More explanation on this later.) 

The verb of a sentence must be complete or
include all necessary verb parts. Often times ESOL
students leave out part of the verb.
Example 1: She working in the lab.
This would be incorrect as the progressive requires
the verb to be. It should be: She is working in the
lab.

A sentence can consist of more than one verb.
However, parallel structure is important. ESOL
students frequently use different verb forms or
tenses when consistency is needed.
Example 1: She works, studies, and is taking care of
her children.
The three verbs are not the same form. The
example should be: She works, studies, and takes
care of her children.

Complete Sentences?
1. Choosing a major is an important decision.
2. Because I study a lot.
3. In my college have a cafeteria and several
snack areas.
4. It is difficult to study on the weekend.
5. There three things to do to be a successful
student.
6. While I was in my ESOL 30 class.
7. My college has many buildings, so easy to get
lost.

Types of Sentences
There are four types of sentences.
1. Simple Sentences
2. Compound Sentences
3. Complex Sentences
4. Compound-Complex Sentences
Roxie is a dog.
Roxie is a dog, and Rufus is her friend.
Rufus loves Roxie because she is adorable.
Rufus loves Roxie because she is adorable, and
she defers to him.

Simple Sentences
Simple sentences are single, independent clauses.
Subject + verb + object or
complement
Subject + verb
Rufus runs. Roxie is a dog.

Compound Sentences
Compound sentences consist of two independent
clauses that are combined with a coordinating
conjunction.
Independent Clause = IC
Coordinating Conjunction = cc
Formula: IC, cc IC.
I like ice cream, and Judy likes cookies.
IC cc IC.
,

Coordinating Conjunctions
F
A
N
B
O
Y
S
or
nd
o
ut
r
et
or
= because
= more
information
= contrast
=result/consequence
I like ice cream, and Judy likes cookies.
I like ice cream, but I don’t like cake.
Neither ice cream nor cookies are good for your
health.
I like ice cream, for it is delicious.
= alternativeI could eat ice cream, or I could eat carrots.
= contrast I could carrots, yet I wouldn’t feel happy.
I will eat ice cream, so I can feel happy.
= two negative
options

The coordinating conjunctions for and nor are not
very common. Thus, it would be a better use of
time to assist students with the other coordinating
conjunctions.

It’s important to focus on mastering simple
sentence structure before tackling compound or
complex. If a student is struggling with more
difficult grammar, go back to the basics. Make
sure that they can identify and produce
comprehensible phrases, then clauses, then simple
sentences before compound or complex.
Complex sentences will be explored more fully in
unit five.

Sentence Structure
 Each of the sentences on the next slide has
a problem with sentence structure. Find
and correct the one sentence-structure
error in each of the sentences.

Correct the Sentence Structure Error
1. In my opinion, speaking in English easier than
writing in English.
2. Is a very interesting point you have raised.
3. My summer internship, for example, it is one
way for me.
4. At present, I am finishing a project, and I also
starting a new one.
5. I felt happy. Because I moved to the U.S.
is
It
am
I felt happy because I moved to the U.S.

COMPLEX SENTENCES

Diagramming Begins!
 What is diagramming?
 Sentence analysis
 Shows relationship of each word
to the rest of the sentence
 Think of frog dissection

First…
 We already know:
 Every sentence MUST have a
subject and verb
 Subject=noun
 Verb=words of doing or being
 Start by asking: WHO or WHAT
is DOING or BEING something?
 Now, draw a horizontal line
and divide it with a vertical
one:

Next…
 Place the subject (noun) and
all the things that go with it on
the left side
 Place the predicate (main
verb) and all things that go
with it on the right side
Subject Predicate

See how this basic sentence is
diagrammed:
Rex barks.
Rex Barks
Subject Predicate
Who or what? Does or is
what?

Now You Try:
Rex whined.
Subject Predicate
Who or what? Does or is
what?

Good. Now Try again:
Rex was panting.
(Hint: be sure to include all parts of the verb.)
Subject Predicate
Who or what? Does or is
what?

Diagram these sentences.
Remember, subject on the left, predicate on the right.
1. Rex might have been
scratching.
2. Rex did bark.
Subject Predicate
Who or what? Does or is
what?

Diagram these sentences.
Remember, subject on the left,
predicate on the right.
1. Rex should have howled.
2. Rex could have been growling.
Subject Predicate
Does or is
what?

Diagram these sentences.
Remember, subject on the left,
predicate on the right.
1. Rex must have run.
2. Rex had slept.

Diagram these sentences.
1. Rex may be eating.
2. Rex will have been digging.

What Have We Learned So
Far?
SOMEBODY DOES
or IS
Or
SOMETHING
SOMETHING

Now, what if we want to
make our sentences pretty?
birds sing
What if we want to know:
Which ones? Where?
What kinds? When?
Whose? Why?
How many? How?

Since ADJECTIVES
Answer the ADJECTIVE QUESTIONS about
NOUNS, they are diagrammed on slanting
lines under the noun they modify:
birds sing
How many birds? Three = ADJ

Now notice this sentence:
Those three blue birds sing.
Same subject and verb,
birds sing
But the noun is modified by three words that
answer three different ADJECTIVE
QUESTIONS.

How about this?
The birds sing sorrowfully.

Good:
Sorrowfully answers the ADVERB QUESTION:
HOW?
birds sing
So, words that answer ADVERB QUESTIONS
are placed on a slanted line under the
VERB

Notice that,
While an adjective usually goes
in front of its noun, an adverb
can hop about in the sentence:
 Sorrowfully the birds sing.
 The birds sorrowfully sing.
 The birds sing sorrowfully.
All three sentences are
diagrammed in exactly the
same way.

Diagram these sentences. Put adjectives under nouns, adverbs
under verbs. Write what question each modifier answers.
1. Poor Rex whined pitifully.
2. That tired Rex was panting furiously.
3. Yesterday Rex might have been scratching.
4. Rex did really bark.
5. Why did Rex really bark?
6. Why should that naughty Rex have howled so dismally?

Ah-ha! A few tricks:
 #5, the question—turn it into a declarative
sentence…it will be diagrammed the same as
#4.
 #6— “why” doesn’t answer an adverb
question; it is an adverb question. Diagram
it just as you would an adverb.
 #6—Where did you put “so”? That was really
sneaky! It answers the ADVERB QUESTION:
HOW. But is does not modify the verb
“howled.” (How did he howl? So? No.) No, it
answers the question “how” about
“dismally.” (How dismally? So dismally.)
Remember that adverbs modify verbs,
adjectives and other adverbs.)

So…
Rex
should have howled

Review and Practice:
What have we learned so far?
1. In a sentence, somebody or
something does or is something.
2. An adjective answers the questions
 Which one
 What kind
 Whose
 How many
3. An adverb answers the questions
 Where
 When
 Why
 How

Diagram these sentences. Be sure to find all helping verbs, and
be careful that each modifier is attached to the word it
modifies.
1. Harry has been listening
carefully.
2. Harry has not been listening
carefully. (Hint: “not” answers
how Harry listens.)

Diagram these sentences. Be sure to find all helping verbs, and
be careful that each modifier is attached to the word it
modifies.
1. Lucy’s blue sweater was
thrown downstairs.
2. That sweet old lady might
have been sleeping there.

Diagram these sentences. Be sure to find all helping verbs, and
be careful that each modifier is attached to the word it
modifies.
1. Suddenly the booming thunder
echoed hollowly.
2. The big bad wolf huffed
importantly.

Diagram these sentences. Be sure to find all helping verbs, and
be careful that each modifier is attached to the word it
modifies.
1. That child might be crying
now.
2. How they must have been
laughing!

Diagram these sentences. Be sure to find all helping verbs, and
be careful that each modifier is attached to the word it
modifies.
1. Away flew the silly geese.
(Careful! What IS the verb?
What or who DID the verb?)
2. My sister may play here.
** More practice for homework!

And Now: Diagramming
Prepositional Phrases
Review: what is a prepositional
phrase? What part(s) of
speech are associated with a
prepositional phrase?
Identify the prepositional
phrase(s) in this sentence:
The squirrel ran up the tree, down the tree,
behind the tree, through the tree, under
the tree, around the tree and into the

Notice:
The squirrel ran up the tree, down the tree,
behind the tree, through the tree, under the
tree, around the tree and into the tree.
All the underlined words connect a noun, “tree,”
with the rest of the sentence, in this case
through the verb “ran.” Notice that each
propositional phrase (“phrase” means the
preposition, its object (the noun it connects)
and any modifiers of the object)) answers the
questions “where” or possibly “how.” These are
our old friends, the ADVERB QUESTIONS, and
since the phrase answers where and how the
verb was carried out, we know these phrases
are acting as ADVERBS modifying the verb.

How to diagram a
prepositional phrase:
tree
Notice that the preposition goes on a slanting
line just below the word the phrase modified, the
object goes on a horizontal line connected to the
preposition line, and any modifier of the noun
object goes under it. In these phrases the word
“the” is an adjective telling “which tree.” Even
though our word order goes: preposition,
adjective, noun object, we diagram it:
preposition, noun object, adjective, because we
are showing the importance of words.

ran
squirrel
tree tree tree tree
It’s pretty, no? You too, can have this much linear
fun!

Let’s diagram these prepositional phrases used as
ADJECTIVES:
1. The boy with the red hat was
singing.
2. A basket of food appeared.
3. That cat of Lucy’s scratches.
4. An amount of six dollars was
owed.

Now, a trick:
Diagram this sentence:
The bird in the tree sang
happily.
**Remember to figure out which
question is being asked!**

Okay, so, you found the prepositional
phrase. You asked, “What question does
it answer?” and you said “Where,” didn’t
you? What the prepositional phrase “in
the tree” really tells is “which one.”
It does this by telling “where.” Now think
about that. We often tell “which one”
about a noun in this way. “Which dress
will you wear?” “The one on the bed.”
This is an example of how you must always
THINK about what words and word
groups are really doing. In most cases,
word order will be a clue as to what a
prepositional phrase modifies.

It may be well to notice that, in
our speech patterns, while
one-word adjectives generally
go in front of the nouns they
modify, prepositional phrases
used as adjectives go after
their nouns.

A final example to study:
The horse with the star on its
forehead
galloped through the pasture
with angry
snortings at its pursuers.

The horse with the star on its forehead galloped through the
pasture with angry snortings at its pursuers.
horse galloped
star pasture
s
forehea
d
snortin
gs
pursuer
s
Study the placement of all phrases. Notice “on its
forehead” modifies the noun “star.” (“On its forehead”
does NOT describe this horse!) Nor did it “gallop” “at its
pursuers.” that tells about its “snortings.” Any noun, not
just the sujbect noun, may be modified by a
prepositional phrase.

Review and Practice
1. Each word in a sentence is one of the eight parts of
speech, depending on the job it does in the sentence.
2. Groups of words, called phrase, may act as single parts
of speech.
3. A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, a noun
object, and perhaps some adjectives modifying the
object.
4. A preposition connects the object with the rest of the
sentence and show the object is related to the sentence.
Usually the relationship has to do with direction, space,
time, possession, etc.
5. Prepositional phrases usually act as ADJECTIVES or
ADVERBS. The whole phrase will answer one of the
ADJECTIVE or ADVERB questions.
6. We diagram a prepositional phrase under the word it
modifies. The object goes on a horizontal line connected
to the preposition. Any modifiers of the object go under
the object.

Diagram these sentences after you have found each prepositional phrase
and asked yourself,
“What question does it answer?”
1. The lamp with the crooked
shade leaned against the wall.
2. The carefree moth with the
black spots o nits wings
lunged happily toward the
flames of the sooty lantern.

Diagram these sentences after you have found each prepositional phrase
and asked yourself,
“What question does it answer?”
1. The rich society lady sighed
with regret over the column in
the paper.
2. After the rain Nellie splashed
in the puddles on the walk.

Diagram these sentences after you have found each prepositional phrase
and asked yourself,
“What question does it answer?”
1. John had been reading about
space travel in that book with
the orange cover.
2. Suzy has been playing with
that girl in the house at the
corner.

Diagram these sentences after you have found each prepositional phrase
and asked yourself,
“What question does it answer?”
1. During the winter the farmer
worked at repairs in his barn.
2. Harry should not have been
sleeping on the porch without
a blanket.

Diagram these sentences after you have found each prepositional phrase
and asked yourself,
“What question does it answer?”
1. In January I walk to school in
the dark.
2. Beside the dry book she wept
for the thirsty violets.