2. Goals/Objectives
Describe the neural controls of respiration
Compare and contrast the following influences on
respiratory rate and depth:
Arterial pH
Arterial partial pressures of oxygen and carbon
dioxide
Lung reflexes
Compare and contrast the hyperpnea of exercise
with hyperventilation
Describe the process and effects of
4. Control of Respiration
Pons
Medulla
Pontine respiratory centers
interact with medullary respiratory centers to
smooth the respiratory pattern.
Ventral respiratory group (VRG)
contains rhythm generators whose output
drives respiration.
Pons
Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)
integrates peripheral sensory input and
modifies the rhythms generated by the VRG.
To inspiratory
muscles
External
intercostal
muscles
Diaphragm
Medulla
Neural
controls
Neurons in
reticular
formation
of medulla
and pons
5. Control of Respiration
Pons
Medulla
Ventral respiratory
group (VRG)
Pons
To inspiratory
muscles
External
intercostal
muscles
Diaphragm
Medulla
Ventral respiratory
group (VRG)
Rhythm-generating
and integrative center
Sets eupnea (12–15
breaths/minute)
Normal respiratory rate
and rhythm
Its inspiratory neurons
excite inspiratory
muscles via phrenic
(diaphragm) and
intercostal nerves
(external intercostals)
Expiratory neurons
inhibit inspiratory
6. Control of Respiration
Pons
Medulla
Pons
Dorsal respiratory
group (DRG)
To inspiratory
muscles
External
intercostal
muscles
Diaphragm
Medulla Dorsal respiratory
group (DRG)
Near root of cranial
nerve IX
Integrates input from
peripheral stretch and
chemoreceptors;
sends information
VRG
7. Control of Respiration
Pons
Medulla
Pontine
respiratory
centers
Pons
To inspiratory
muscles
External
intercostal
muscles
Diaphragm
Medulla
Influence and modify
activity of VRG
Smooth out transition
between inspiration
and expiration and
vice versa
Transmit impulses to
VRG modify and
fine-tune breathing
rhythms during
vocalization, sleep,
exercise
8. Generation of the Respiratory
Rhythm
Not well understood
One hypothesis
Pacemaker neurons with intrinsic rhythmicity
(even if pacemakers were blocked, breathing
continued)
Most widely accepted hypothesis
Reciprocal inhibition of two sets of interconnected
pacemaker neurons in medulla that generate
rhythm
9.
10.
11. Factors influencing Breathing Rate
and Depth
Depth determined by how actively
respiratory center stimulates respiratory
muscles
Rate determined by how long inspiratory
center active (ex. If only active a short
amount of time, rate is shorter)
Both modified in response to changing
body demands
Most important are changing levels of CO2,
O2, and H+
12. Chemical
Factors - Pco2
Arterial PCO2
PCO2 decreases pH
in brain extracellular
fluid (ECF)
Central chemoreceptors in
brain stem respond to H+
in brain ECF (mediate
70% of the CO2 response)
Peripheral chemoreceptors
in carotid and aortic bodies
(mediate 30% of the CO2
response)
Afferent impulses
Medullary
respiratory centers
Efferent impulses
Respiratory muscle
Ventilation
(more CO2 exhaled)
Arterial PCO2 and pH
return to normal
Initial stimulus
Physiological response
Result
If blood Pco2 levels rise,
CO2 accumulates in brain
CO2 in brain hydrated
carbonic acid
dissociates, releasing H+
pH drops
H+ stimulates central
chemoreceptors of brain
stem
Chemoreceptors synapse
with respiratory regulatory
centers increased
depth and rate of
13. Chemical Factors - Po2
Peripheral chemoreceptors in aortic
and carotid bodies–arterial O2 level
sensors
When excited, cause respiratory centers
to increase ventilation
Declining Po2 normally slight effect on
ventilation
Huge O2 reservoir bound to Hb
Requires substantial drop in arterial Po2
14. Chemical Factors - Arterial pH
Can modify respiratory rate and rhythm even if
CO2 and O2 levels normal
Mediated by peripheral chemoreceptors
Decreased pH may reflect
CO2 retention; accumulation of lactic acid; excess
ketone bodies
Respiratory system controls attempt to raise
pH by increasing respiratory rate and depth
15. Clicker Question
The _________ is responsible for setting the
basic rhythm of breathing.
a) VRG
b) DRG
c) pontine respiratory group
d) pons
16. Clicker Questions
When CO2 levels increase, ___________.
a) H+ stimulates central chemoreceptors of brain
stem
b) pH drops
c) Depth and rate of breathing increases
d) All of the above
18. Influence of Higher Brain
Centers
Hypothalamic controls act through limbic
(emotion) system to modify rate and depth of
respiration
Example-breath holding that occurs in anger or gasping
with pain
Rise in body temperature increases respiratory rate
(tissues are working harder; more waste products
produced and more oxygen needed)
Cortical controls—direct signals from cerebral
motor cortex that bypass medullary controls
Example-voluntary breath holding
Brain stem reinstates breathing when blood CO2 critical
19. Pulmonary Irritant Reflexes
Receptors in bronchioles respond to
irritants
Communicate with respiratory centers via
vagal nerve afferents
Promote reflexive constriction of air
passages
Same irritant cough in trachea or
bronchi; sneeze in nasal cavity
20. Inflation Reflex
Hering-Breuer Reflex (inflation reflex)
Stretch receptors in pleurae and airways
stimulated by lung inflation
Inhibitory signals to medullary respiratory centers
end inhalation and allow expiration
Acts as protective response more than normal
regulatory mechanism
21. Respiratory Adjustments:
Exercise
Adjustments geared to
both intensity and
duration of exercise
Hyperpnea
Increased ventilation
(10 to 20 fold) in
response to metabolic
needs
Pco2, Po2, and pH
remain surprisingly
constant during
22. Respiratory Adjustments:
Exercise
Three neural factors cause increase
in ventilation as exercise begins:
Psychological stimuli
Simultaneous cortical motor activation of
skeletal muscles and respiratory centers
Excitatory impulses to respiratory
centers from proprioceptors in moving
muscles, tendons, joints
23. Respiratory Adjustments: High
Altitude
Quick travel to altitudes above 2400
meters (8000 feet) may symptoms of
acute mountain sickness (AMS)
Atmospheric pressure and Po2 levels lower
Headaches, shortness of breath, nausea, and
dizziness
In severe cases, lethal cerebral and
pulmonary edema
24. Acclimatization to High Altitude
Acclimatization—respiratory and
hematopoietic adjustments to long-term
move to high altitude
Always lower-than-normal Hb saturation
levels
Less O2 available
25. Clicker Question
_______ is produced by the _______ in
response to low blood oxygen levels.
a) Erythropoietin, kidneys
b) Growth hormone, pituitary gland
c) Hematopoietin, bone marrow
d) Hematopoietin, lungs
26. Acclimatization to High Altitude
Acclimatization—respiratory and
hematopoietic adjustments to long-term
move to high altitude
Always lower-than-normal Hb saturation
levels
Less O2 available
Decline in blood O2 stimulates kidneys to
accelerate production of EPO
RBC numbers increase slowly to provide