1. The Enlightenment
A switch has been flipped and
Europe has entered an Age of
Reason!

2. By the end of this presentation you
will be able to…





Explain the major currents in Enlightenment
thought
Discuss the philosophies of the major thinkers
Explain how both high culture and popular culture
changed during this era
Discuss the changing role and status of women
during this period
Describe the characteristics of Enlightened
Despots

3. What is the Enlightenment?




A period of thought, reason and logic
Scientific Revolution ideas: observation,
experimentation, testing hypotheses are
applied to social issues
Thinkers like Kant “Dare to Know” the truth
Truth should be plain and simple so any
man can understand it

4. What is the Enlightenment? (II)


Voltaire: People should move away from
inherited misconceptions and learn for
themselves the truths of the world
Rousseau: People should move away from
the trappings, dogma and rhetoric of
education and learn by experiencing things
in nature

5. What is the Enlightenment? (III)

Political thought also changes:




All people are born with natural rights
Governments derive their power from the
people
A government’s job is to protect the natural
rights of its citizens
If a government isn’t protecting the rights of
it people, the people have the right to
overthrow that government

6. Enlightenment though attacks the
Church



Enlightenment thought urges movement
away from tradition
The Church is the foundation of European
tradition
Church corruption and things like the
inquisition make the Church even less
desirable to Enlightenment thinkers

7. Enlightenment though attacks the
Church

Voltaire attacks the church and calls it
“L’infâme” the infamous, or detestable thing
BLAH!

8. Enlightenment though attacks the
Church

Enlightenment
thinkers also criticize
the Church for failing
to embrace the ideas
and advances of the
scientific revolution

9. Alternatives to Christianity during the
Enlightenment

Deism: Thinkers like Thomas Jefferson
prefer to view God as a “Watchmaker” who
made the universe and now watches it run
according to the laws of nature

Voltaire likes this because he favors “Truth
without Sect”

10. Alternatives to Christianity during the
Enlightenment (II)



Other thinkers turn to Agnosticism and
Atheism
Many view Christianity as being irrelevant
to the truth
Others dislike what they see as artificial
divides in society. Can’t we all just get
along?

11. Assessment: Answer the following on
a separate sheet of paper



What major ideas make up Enlightenment
thought?
How does the view of religion change
during this era?
Define Deism

12. Enlightenment philosophes and their
contributions

Many Enlightenment Philosophes looked to
Newton and Locke for their inspiration


Newton laid the foundation for creating a
framework for experimentation  an
understanding of reason
“Nature, by Nature’s Laws lay hid in Night;
God said, ‘Let Newton be,’ and all was Light.”

13. Locke’s influence…

In addition to Two Treatises on Government,
Locke’s work greatly influenced
Enlightenment thought:



Essay Concerning Human Behavior and
Understanding, 1860 denied Descartes’s belief in
innate ideas.
According to Locke we are all tabula rasa, a blank
mind
Knowledge derived from environment, not birth

14. Let us suppose the mind to be , as we say, white paper void of
all characters, without any ideas. How comes it to be
furnished? Whence comes it by that vast store which the busy
and boundless fancy of man has painted on it with an almost
endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of reason and
knowledge? To this I answer in one word, from experience….
Our observation, employed either about external sensible
objects or about internal operations of our minds perceived and
reflected on by ourselves, is that which supplies our
understanding with all the materials of thinking.

15. The Philosophes:




Montesquieu
Voltaire
Diderot
Rousseau

16. Montesquieu


Charles de Secondat, the baron de
Montesquieu (1689-1755)
Persian Letters, 1721:


Two Persians travel to France and criticize
French institutions especially Catholic Church
and Monarchy
Contains many Enlightenment themes like
attacking traditional religion, advocating
tolerance, denouncing slavery, ending prejudice

17. Montesquieu (II)

The Spirit of the Laws, 1748




Comparative study of monarchies and
republics
Study of England’s Parliamentary system 
the importance of Checks and Balances and
maintaining separation of powers
Ironically this is based on Montesquieu
misinterpreting the English system
Huge influence on American founding fathers

18. Voltaire



Francois-Marie Arouet (1694-1778)
Used wit and sarcasm to attack problems in
French society
Philisophic Letters on the English, 1733
expressed deep admiration of English
freedoms and religious tolerance

19. “…if there were just one religion in
England, despotism would threaten; if there
were two religions, they would cut each
other’s throats; but there are thirty religions,
and they live together peacefully and
happily.”

20. Voltaire (II)

Treatise in Toleration, 1763




Religion had posed no problems in tolerant
states such as England and Holland
“all men are brothers under God”
Denounced the Church and urged people to
“Crush the infamous thing!”
Was a Deist

21. Diderot



Denis Diderot (1713-1784)
Condemned Christianity as being of all
religions “the most absurd and most
atrocious in its dogma”
Became increasingly materialistic and as
an old man argued “This world is only a
mass of molecules.”

22. Diderot (II)

Most famous contribution to the period
Encyclopedia, or Classified Dictionary of
the Sciences, Arts, and Trades



Purpose was to change peoples way of thinking
Attacked religious issues
Hoped to make society more cosmopolitan,
tolerant, humane, and reasonable

23. Rousseau


Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
In Discourses on the Origins of the
Inequality of Mankind, Rousseau describes
humans in a happy state of nature.
There were no laws, judges; all are equal.
But what went wrong?

24. “The first man who, having enclosed a
piece of ground, thought of saying, This is
mine, and found people simple enough to
believe him, was the true founder of civil
society. How many crimes, wars, murders;
how much misery and horror would have
been spared if someone had pulled up the
stakes and filled in the ditch, and cried to
his fellow men: ‘Beware of listening to this
imposter. You are lost if you forget the
fruits of the earth belong to everyone and
the earth itself belongs to no one!’”

25. Rousseau (II)

The Social Contract, 1762



Harmonize individual liberty with governmental
authority
An agreement by the entire society to be
governed by the “General Will”
Liberty could be achieved if everyone followed
the will of the majority

26. Rousseau (III)

Emile, 1762



One of the Enlightenments most important works
on education.
Education should foster rather than restrict
children’s natural instincts
Viewed women as being naturally different from
men, and should lead sedentary lives and learn
to be obedient to better care for her children

27. Assessment: Answer the following on
a separate sheet of paper

Summarize the major views of each of the
following Enlightenment Philosophes





Locke
Voltaire
Diderot
Rousseau
Montesquieu

28. Women and Enlightenment Thought



For centuries men had debated about the
nature and value of women
Men believed a woman’s nature made her
inferior and thus she needed domination
Ideas based on biological differences

As Rousseau said, a woman’s construction
made her suited for motherhood

29. Women and Enlightenment Thought
(II)


Diderot and Condorcet maintained that
women were not all that different from men.
Voltaire said “women are capable of all that
men are.”

30. Women and Enlightenment Thought
(III)

Women thinkers began to add their
thoughts to the “woman’s question”


Mary Astell wrote in A Serious Proposal to the
Ladies in 1697 that women should seek
education because they are men’s equals
In Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792,
Mary Wollstonecraft pointed out two
contradictions in Rousseau’s beliefs

31. Women and Enlightenment Thought
(IV)


Wollstonecraft’s criticism of Rousseau: She
believed that it was contradictory for people
who believed slavery, and the arbitrary rule
of monarchs were wrong to find that women
should obey men.
Wollstonecraft believed women should be
entitled to equal rights in education, and
economic and political life

32. Enlightenment Salons


A major goal of Enlightenment thought was
to spread their ideas throughout society
Salons, elegant drawing rooms of the
wealthy where philosophers would gather
and discuss their ideas, began in the late
17th century and gained popularity through
the 18th

33. Enlightenment Salons (II)



Women were generally the hostesses of
these salons
As such women gained influence over royal
decisions, political opinions, and literary
and artistic taste
They provided havens, and a stage for
people whose views were unpopular at
court

34. Enlightenment Salons (III)


Although Salons were run by women, their
reputation was based on the males who
attended
In spite of this, many feared female
influence over French thought, politics, and
culture

35. Enlightenment Salons (IV)

In addition to the elite culture that sprang
up around salons, other new forums grew




Coffeehouses
Cafes
Reading clubs
Public libraries

36. Assessment: Answer the following on
a separate sheet of paper



How did ideas about women during this
time show hypocrisy on the part of some
Philosophes
Identify Mary Wollstonecraft
Explain the part women played socially and
intellectually during the Enlightenment

37. 18th Century Art, Music and Literature

Baroque styles gave way to a new
movement called Rococo



Emphasis on grace and gentle action
Rejection of straight geometric patters in favor of
curves
Emphasized pursuit of pleasure, happiness and
love

38. 18th Century Art, Music and Literature
(II)
Antoine Watteau (1684-1721) reflected a
world of upper class pleasure and joy.
His work also revealed the fragility and
transitory nature of life, love, and pleasure

39. 18th Century Art, Music and Literature
(III)

In Architecture,
the Palace of
Versailles
became the
standard others
tried to emulate
in an attempt to
“keep up with
the Bourbons”
Chateau Sans Souci

40. Baroque vs. Rococo

Baroque



Displayed grandeur
Show the power of the
Church
 Rococo
Art, furniture and
 Grows out of Baroque
architecture were created
to impress, not to be used
 Celebration of carnal life
practically!
 Imbued with open eroticism
 Art, furniture and
architecture were meant to
be unified and in harmony.

41. Baroque Art





Caravaggio
Rembrandt
Rubens
Carracci
Louis LeVau and Jules Mansart

42. The Deposition
Caravaggio

43. Descent from
the Cross,
Holland. 1634
Rembrandt

44. The
Deposition,
Antwerp
1612
Rubens

45. Pieta,
Carracci

46. Numerous Chateaus and
the Palace of Versailles

47. Rococo




Francois Boucher
Jean–Antoine Watteau
Giacomo Amiconi
Canaletto

48. Madame Boucher 1743,
Francois Boucher

49. Mezzetin,
Jean-Antoine Watteau

50. Mercury
about to
slay
Argus,
Giacomo
Amiconi

51. Ponte di Rialto,
Giovanni Antonio Canaletto.

52. 18th Century Art, Music and Literature
(IV)

Neoclassicism was
also very popular.
 Focused on
recapturing the
dignity and
simplicity of
Greece and Rome
David, Oath of the Horatii

53. 18th Century Art, Music and Literature
(V)


1600-1750 are important years for the
development of classical music, and see
the rise of forms such as opera and
oratotio, the sonata, the concerto, and the
symphany
Two most influential composers of this time
were Bach and Handel

54. 18th Century Art, Music and Literature
(VI)

Handel’s most famous
composition is The
Messiah

55. 18th Century Art, Music and Literature
(VII)

Bach believed his task was to make “wellordered music in honor of God.”

56. 18th Century Art, Music and
Literature (VIII)


From 1756-1791, European music was
dominated by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart,
who wrote his first opera at 12.
Mozart is credited with writing some of the
greatest operas ever including The
Marriage of Figaro, The Magic Flute, and
Don Giovanni

57. 18th Century Art, Music and
Literature (IX)

The Novel!



This new literary genre grew out of medieval
romances and stories from the 16th century.
English are credited with this fictional form
Proved equally attractive to women audiences
and writers

Pamela: or, Virtue Rewarded by Samuel
Richardson is one of the earliest novels
 A servant girl is rewarded for repeatedly fighting off
attempts of seduction

58. 18th Century Art, Music and
Literature (X)

Pamela: or, Virtue Rewarded by Samuel
Richardson is one of the earliest novels
 A servant girl is rewarded for repeatedly fighting off
attempts of seduction

The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling by Henry
Fielding is a reaction to the serious morality of the
time
 Chronicles the many adventures of the main character,
a young scoundrel

59. Popular Culture vs. High Culture

High Culture usually refers to the literary
and artistic world of the educated elite
ruling classes


Consists of theologians, scientists, philosophers,
intellectuals, poets, dramatists
Popular Culture is the unwritten lore of the
masses passed down orally and appealing
to the everyday person

60. Popular Culture vs. High Culture



There was a major increase in literacy and
reading during this era
Growth of publishing houses made it
possible for authors to earn money for their
work
Great Britain saw the introduction of the
magazine

25 published in 1700, 158 by 1780

61. Popular Culture vs. High Culture

One of the best known magazines was the
Spectator begun in 1711


Its major goal was to temper wit with morality,
bring philosophy into the mainstream
Also praised family, marriage and courtesy

62. Popular Culture vs. High Culture (III)

Over time new magazines were aimed at
women



The Female Spectator was aimed at women
Was edited by Eliza Haywood
Featured articles by female authors

63. Popular Culture vs. High Culture (IV)

Education was on the rise




Many private secondary schools, primary schools which
tended to be elitist and for the wealthiest members of society
Curriculum focused largely on Greek and Latin classics
Little attention was paid to math, the sciences, or modern
languages
In 1747 Germany opened the first Realschule to teach
modern languages, geography, bookkeeping, and prepare
boys for business

64. Crime and Punishment

The treatment of criminals also raised
questions during this period




Except England, courts still used torture to get
information before trial
Public execution was public and painful
Death penalty was commonly applied to property
crimes and criminal offenses
Forced labor in mines, forts, and navies were
also common punishments

65. Crime and Punishment

Cesare Beccaria wrote On Crimes and
Punishments in 1764 in which he argued



Punishments should serve as deterrents
Capital punishment was wrong and didn’t
prevent others from committing crimes
This led to a growing sentiment against
execution and torture

66. Crime and Punishment

“Is it not absurd that the laws, which detest
and punish homicide, should, in order to
prevent murder, publicly commit murder
themselves?” Beccaria

67. Medical Advances



Physicians and surgeons begin to need
licensing
Male doctors begin to replace midwives in
delivering babies
Traditional and faith healing continue
especially in rural parts of Europe

68. Popular Culture

Carnival was celebrated in the weeks
leading up to Lent



A time of great indulgence and debauchery
It was a time of intense hedonistic and sexual
activity
Certain crimes were permitted such as openly
insulting people, or throwing apples, eggs, flour,
or water filled pigs bladders at others

69. Popular Culture (II)

Taverns and Alcohol




Common gathering places for neighborhood men
Gin was cheap, signs advertised “Drunk for a
penny, dead drunk for two pence”
Consumption of gin rose from 2 to 5 million
gallons between 1714 and 1733
The rich also drank but they favored wine

70. Assessment: Answer the following on
a separate sheet of paper




Describe the changes made in art, music,
and architecture
Discuss the differences between high
culture and popular culture during this time
How did the medical field change during
this time?
How did views of crime and punishment
change during this time?

71. What are Enlightened Despots?


Monarchs who believed in Enlightenment
ideas like natural laws and natural rights
were considered Enlightened Despots
Monarchs like Frederick II of Prussia,
Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph
II of Austria were supposedly Enlightened
in their rule

72. Frederick II aka (the Great) of Prussia




Developed the army and a governmental
bureaucracy
Invited Voltaire to his court for several
years
Believed the king should be “first servant of
the state”
Oversaw administration of the state and
made it efficient and honest

73. Frederick II





Established a single code of law
Eliminated the use of torture
Granted limited freedom of press and
speech, and total religious toleration
Was to socially conservative to free the
serfs
Reversed his fathers law that allowed
commoners to earn civil service positions

74. Austria and the Hapsburgs

Maria Theresa (1740-1780)



Forced clergy and nobles to pay
taxes
Divided land into 10 provinces all
governed by appointed officials
Made Austria more centralized and
bureaucratic

75. Austria and the Hapsburgs (II)

Joseph II




Wanted to sweep away anything that stoop in the
way of reason “I have made philosophy the
lawmaker of my empire”
Abolished serfdom and gave peasants right to
hereditary land holdings
Demanded complete religious toleration
Alienated nobility and church with reforms

76. Austria and the Hapsburgs

He wrote the following epitaph
for his gravestone
“Here lies Joseph II, who was
unfortunate in everything that
he undertook.”

77. Russia and Catherine the Great


Claimed she wished to
reform Russia according
to Enlightenment ideas
Would not pursue any
reform that threatened her
power or ability to work
with the nobles

78. Catherine’s reforms



1767, issued new laws, Instruction as a
guide to deliberations
Questioned serfdom, torture, capital
punishment, and advocated equality for all
people
Spent 1 ½ years discussing these issues,
then made little change

79. Catherine’s Reforms





Policies strengthened the landed nobility
Conditions grew worse for peasants
Put down peasant revolt with force and
execute leader Pugachev
Strengthened military and won control of
Black Sea from Ottoman Turks
Negotiated partition of Poland with Austria
and Prussia

80. Assessment: Answer the following on
a separate sheet of paper
To what extent do Prussia, Russia, and
Austria reflect Enlightened Despotism in
the 17th Century?
 Discuss the extent of enlightenment within
kingdoms ruled by Enlightened Despots
