1. Explanations of Prejudice and Discrimination

2. Repeated exposure to an object results in greater attraction to that object. Mere exposure effect

3. Frustration-aggression hypothesis Theory that all frustration leads to aggression, and all aggression comes from frustration. Psychodynamic theory – assumption of a fixed amount of psychic energy for humans to perform psychological activities. Completed activity = catharsis. Dollard et. al (1939) argued if goal achievement is prevented, energy remains = disequilibrium. Can only be corrected by aggression. Target of aggression is usually the perceived agent of frustration, but sometimes the agent is amorphous (e.g. bureaucracy), indeterminate (the economy), too powerful, unavailable or someone you love. Therefore, it is displaced on to an alternative target scapegoat

4. Scapegoat theory If a group is frustrated in its goals by another group that is too powerful, the aggression is displaced on to a weaker group = scapegoat. E.g. The frustration-aggression hypothesis on the rise of anti-Semitism in Germany during 20s and 30s

5. Adorno’s Authoritarian Personality Theory proposed that autocratic and punitive child-rearing practices were responsible for the emergence of clusters of prejudices from childhood to adulthood. Limitations: situational and sociocultural factors are underemphasised. E.g. Sth Africa and southern US > racist than Nth US – but had no differences in authoritarian personality Constructed California F-scale to assess tendencies towards fascism. 9 variables in the F Scale:

6. 1) Conventionalism: strict following of conventional, middle-class values 2) Authoritarian submission: submissive, uncritical attitudes towards idealised authorities of the ingroup; 3) Authoritarian aggression: condemnation and rejection of those who violate conventional values, and request for their severe punishment; 4) Anti-intraception: opposing to everything subjective, imaginative, not dealing with own inner psychic life and experience; 5) Rigid thinking, Superstition and stereotypy: tendency to think in rigid categories and belief in mystical causes of the individual's fate; 6) Power and "toughness”: identification with those who own power, exaggerate importance of strength, toughness, discipline; 7) Destructiveness and cynism - rejection of compassion and empathy, generalised hostility; 8) Projectivity - projection of inner unconscious impulses onto the outer world, belief that world is dominated by secret and dangerous forces 9) Sex: overemphasised interest in sexual deviations, false morality

7. Problems with the theory: Prejudice within a society can change very quickly – e.g. Germany in 1930s, US following Pearl Harbor – not consistent with Adorno’s idea that prejudice always goes back to childhood. Cannot easily account for prejudice affecting large groups/whole societies e.g. South Africa under apartheid CRITICISM

8. Theory that attributes prejudice to an individual’s acceptance of an ideology that legitimisesingroup-serving hierarchy and domination, and rejects egalitarian ideologies. Originally about desire for ingroup domination over outgroups. People who desire their ingroup to be dominant and superior to outgroups = high social dominance orientation and are more inclined to be prejudiced than those with low social dominance orientation. Social dominance theory

9. The theory that similar beliefs promote liking and social harmony among people while dissimilar beliefs produce dislike and prejudice. Belief congruence