2. Surgical anatomy of ankle
joint
Saddle shaped joint
Three bone joint – tibia, fibula and talus
Tibia - tibial plafond and medial
malleolus
Fibula – lateral malleolus
Large surface of talar dome anteriorly
and laterally
3. Continued..
This configuration provides stability in dorsi
flexion and relative mobility in plantar flexion
# DORSI FLEXION - close packed position
- stability by articular
contact
# PLANTAR FLEXION – stability principally
by ligamentous
structures
4. TIBIA
Lower end formed by five surfaces,
# inferior,anterior,posterior,lateral,medial
` inferior surface is concave antero-posteriorly
and convex transversely
` posterior border is lower than the lateral
border
` lateral border is concave with two tubercles – anterior
and posterior
5.
6. TIBIA
Anterior tubercle over laps fibula - forms
the basis for radiological tibio-fibular
syndesmotic assessment
Posterior tubercle remains intact –
forms the basis for indirect reduction of
posterior malleolar fragment
7. MEDIAL MALLEOLUS
Articular surface is comma shaped
Posterior border includes groove for tibialis
posterior
Composed of two colliculi seperated by inter
collicular groove
Deep component of deltoid attaches to inter
collicular groove
Superficial component attaches to medial and
anterior border of anterior colliculus
8. FIBULA
Two major surfaces, medial and lateral
which widen to three surfaces at tibial
plafond
# anteriorly - ant tibio-fibular
- ant talo-fibular
# inferiorly - calcaneo-fibular
# posteriorly - post tibio-fibular
9. TALUS
Covered entirely by articular cartilage,
no musculo-tendinous attachment
Trapezoidal – ant surface wider than
the post surface
10. LIGAMENTS
syndesmotic - ant tibio-fibular
- post tibio-fibular – strongest
- int-osseous ligament
Lateral collateral - ant talo-fibular
- calcaneo-fibular
- post talo-fibular
Deltoid - superficial
- deep – primary medial stabiliser
14. Patient Evaluation
History
Mechanism
Time since injury
Associated injuries
Comorbidities
Diabetes
Neuropathy
Obesity
Alcoholism / drug
abuse
15. Physical Exam
Note obvious deformities
Neurovascular exam
Pain to palpation of malleoli and
ligaments
Palpate along the entire fibula
Pain at the ankle with compression
syndesmotic injury
Examine the hindfoot and forefoot for
associated injuries
16. Ankle Injuries
type I — Only a few
fibers are stretched
or torn, so ankle is
mildly tender and
painful, but muscle
strength is normal.
17. Ankle Injuries
Type II — A greater
number of fibers are
torn, so there is
severe pain and
tenderness, together
with mild swelling,
noticable loss of
strength and
sometimes bruising
18. Ankle Injuries
Type III — The
ligaments tear all the
way through, rip
into two separate
parts, there will be
considerable pain,
swelling, tenderness
and discoloration.
19. Ankle Injuries
Sprains / Strains –
80% of sprains are
caused by ankle
inversion.
Inversion sprains
cause damage to
the lateral ligaments
20. RADIOLOGY
OTTAWA ANKLE RULES
# x-rays indicated only if
` pain near malleoli
` inability to bear weight
` bony tenderness at the tip of the
malleolus or post edge
# 100% sensitive, decreased cost and
patient waiting time
21. X - RAYS
On plain x-rays – there is continous
condensed sub chondral bone around
the talus that extends from sub
chondral bone of distal tibia to medial
aspect of fibula
22. X - RAYS
AP and LATERAL
MORTISE VIEW
STRESS or OBLIQUE VIEW (cobb’s)
23. A-P VIEW
Tibio-fibular overlap
<10mm implies
syndesmotic injury
Tibio-fibular clear
space
>5mm implies
syndesmotic injury
Talar tilt
>2mm is considered
abnormal
24. MORTISE VIEW
AP view of ankle with
foot internally
rotated
Abnormal findings:
medial joint space
widening
tibia/fibula overlap
<1mm
25. LATERAL
VIEW
Posterior malleolus
fracture
Subluxation of the talus
Angulation of distal fibula
Talus fractures
Calcaneus fractures
26. STRESS VIEWS
Demonstrate ligamentous or syndesmotic
disruption
May require sedation or hematoma block
Comparison with contralateral ankle
27. LAUGE HANSEN”S
Associates specific fracture patterns with
mechanism of injury
Two-term scheme
1. Position of foot
Supination (lateral)
Pronation (medial)
1. Direction of force
Adduction / abduction
External rotation
Dorsiflexion
28. LAUGE HANSEN”S
Genetic classification
Six groups of injuries
# abduction injuries
# adduction injuries
# ext rotation injuries with diastasis of
inferior tibio-fibular jt
- pronation external rotation injuries
# ext rotation injuries with out diastasis of
inferior tibio-fibular jt
- supination external rotation injuries
# vertical compression injuries
# uncommon unclassifiable injuries
29. LAUGE HANSEN”S
Continues to form the basis of our
understanding of mehanism of injury
Provides good guide to prognosis after
both operative and conservative
methods
30. WEBER”S
Type A
# below syndesmosis
Type B
# at the level of syndesmosis
Type C
# above the level of syndesmosis
32. WEBER”S
Attractive for its simplicity and its guided
treatment
Level of fibular fracture exclusively to
guide treatment isn’t accurate enough
Degree of syndesmotic injury not
always accurately predicted
Ignores medial side of the injury
33. Surgical technique
Standard AO fixation
Inter-fragmentary screw and 1/3 tubular neutralisation
plate for fibula and lag screw fixation for medial
malleolus
Syndesmosis screw is required if fibula is unstable at
end of fixation (engage 3 cortices and ensure the
ankle is at 90º when inserting screw, and that the
screw is not lagged) Screw needs to be removed
before weight bearing can be commenced
Alternative fixation for Type B fractures of the fibula is
the anti-glide plate which has been shown to be
biomechanically superior to a lateral plate
Posterior malleolus fractures need to be fixed if there
is > 25% of the articular surface involved. This is
often underestimated on lateral radiographs
34. ABDUCTION INJURY
Talus forcibly abducted in ankle mortise producing traction on
medial structures -
# pull off fracture of medial malleolus or rupture of deltoid
ligament
# lateral compression force produces a lower fibular fracture
with characteristic lateral comminution
# doesnot produce seperation of tibio-fibular jt b’cos
combined strength of three ligaments is greater than lat
malleolus
# rarely if associated with vertical compression can cause en-
bloc avulsion of incisura fibularis
35. DIAGNOSIS
Valgus deformity of foot
Swelling over both medial and lateral
aspect
36. TREATMENT
Undisplaced isolated med malleolus
fractures –
# b/k plaster cast for six
weeks
# rehabilitation
37. TREATMENT
Displaced / irreducible – due to soft
tissue interposition,
# 4mm cancellous screw
#TBW
# inter-fragmentary screw
39. ADDUCTION INJURY
Traction on the lateral structures
# forcible inversion of the plantar flexed foot
> ant talo-fibular tear
# forcible inversion at right angle
> tear of all 3 lateral ligaments or
lateral malleolus fracture
> compression injury of the medial
malleolus causing vertical fracture +/-
depression of articular surface
40. ADDUCTION INJURY -
TREATMENT
Isolated tear of ant talo-fibular ligament
# eversion stirrup and elastic
bandaging
# adhesion formation
- pain, weakness, giving way
- outer side heel raise
- Inj hydrocortisone + hyaluronidase
41. ADDUCTION INJURY -
TREATMENT
Complete tear of lateral structures-
# talus will move away from malleolus
and well defined sulcus appears
between the two bones
Marked talar tilt on stress x-rays
Can lead to recurrent dislocation if not
treated
42. ADDUCTION INJURY -
TREATMENT
Complete immobilisation in a plaster
cast for 6-8 weeks and rehabilitation
Recurrent dislocation –
# evan’s procedure
43. EX ROTATION INJ WITH INF
TIBIO-FIBULAR JT
DIASTASIS
Also known as PRONATION-EXTERNAL
ROTATION FRACTURE
Three types –
# isolated fracture of med malleolus
# partial diastasis of the inf tibio-fibular
joint
# complete diastasis of the inf tibio-
fibular joint
44. EX ROTATION INJ WITH INF
TIBIO-FIBULAR JT
DIASTASIS
Isolated med malleolus fracture -
# b/k plaster cast for 6-8 weeks
# ORIF
45. EX ROTATION INJ WITH INF
TIBIO-FIBULAR JT
DIASTASIS
Partial diastasis of the inf tibio-fibular jt
# reducible – a/k plaster cast in slightly
inverted and firmly int rotated position
(fibula winds itself up on the intact post
ligament which serves to locate it well in
its groove in the tibia – incisura fibularis)
# irreducible – ORIF
46. EX ROTATION INJ WITH INF
TIBIO-FIBULAR JT
DIASTASIS
Complete diastasis of the inf tibio-fibular
joint
ORIF - post op immobilisation
- plaster cast for 6-8 weeks
47. EX-ROTATION INJ WITHOUT
INF TIBIO-FIBULAR JT
DIASTASIS
Also known as SUPINATION-
EXTERNAL ROTATION FRACTURE
Oblique fracture of the lower fibula
Fracture dislocation without inf tibio-
fibular joint diastasis
48. EX-ROTATION INJ WITHOUT
INF TIBIO-FIBULAR JT
DIASTASIS
Oblique fracture of the lower fibula
# b/k plaster cast application for 4
weeks
49. EX-ROTATION INJ WITHOUT
INF TIBIO-FIBULAR JT
DIASTASIS
Fracture dislocation without inf tibio-fibular
joint diastasis
# reduction – cupping back the heel
in one hand, gently pull forwards and
inwards and at the same time with the
other hand apply counter over the medial
side of tibial shaft
# ORIF
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56. Operative Tips
Lateral Malleolus
Reduce first
Proximal fragment (shaft) needs reduction
3 bicortical screws into proximal fibula
Unicortical screws into intra-articular
portion
Be certain fibula is out to length
57. ISOLATED LATERAL MALLEOLAR #
` Reduce & internally fix lateral malleolar # first in case of
a bimalleolar #.
` If the # is oblique, fix it with two lag screws 1cm apart.
` If the # is transverse, fix it with a rush rod / IL fibular
rod.
` If the # is small & below the plafond and has good bone
stock, it is fixed with a 4.5mm malleolar screw. In
patients with poor bone stock tension band technique
is used.
` If the # is above the syndesmotic level, a small
fragment 1/3rd tubular plate or a 3.5mm DCP can be
used, If the plate is placed posterolaterally it acts as a
antiglide plate.
58. Operative Tips
Medial malleolus
Open reduction
Visualize the ‘shoulder’ of the malleolus
Remove interposed soft tissue and
intraarticular fragments
Two points of fixation
Anti-glide plate for vertical fractures
59. ISOLATED MED. MALLEOLAR #
` Non displaced #: cast immobilisation.
` Avulsion # of the malleolar tip: no fixation required
unless displaced.
` Fixation usually requires two 4mm cancellous lag
screws oriented perpendicular to the #.
` Vertically oriented # requires horizontally placed
screws.
` Smaller fragments require one lag screw & a k-wire to
prevent rotation.
` Fragments too small or comminuted are fixed with
tension band technique.
` Vertical # extending into metaphysis requires
semitubular buttress plate for fixation.
61. Posterior Malleolus
Repair if >25% of
articular surface
Reduce by ankle
dorsiflexion
Clamp through
fibular incision
Anterior lag screws
62. Maissoneuve Fracture
Fracture of proximal
1/3 of fibula
+/- medial malleolar
fracture
Pronation-external
rotation mechanism
Requires reduction
and stabilization of
syndesmosis
63. Maissoneuve Fracture
Fracture of proximal
1/3 of fibula
+/- medial malleolar
fracture
Pronation-external
rotation mechanism
Requires reduction
and stabilization of
syndesmosis
64. BIMALLEOLAR FRACTURE
` Non union reported in 10% of bimalleolar # treated
with closed methods.
` Tile & AO group recommends ORIF of almost all
bimalleolar #s.
` Most Weber type B & C lateral malleolar #s are
stabilised with plate & screw fixation.
65. DELTOID LIG.TEAR & LATERAL MALLEOLAR
#
` Supination- external rotation injury.
` Associated with tear of the anterior capsule.
` Stress x-ray with the supinated & externally rotated
shows talar tilting with a widened medial clear space.
` 1mm lateral shift of talus reduces the effective wt.
bearing area of the talo-tibial articulation by 20-40%.
` Optimal treatment of this injury provided skin
condition, patient age & general condition permits,
consists of ORIF of fibula with /without deltoid ligament
repair.
` Lateral malleolar # is fixed before the repair of deltoid
ligament.
66. TRIMALLEOLAR FRACTURE
` Usually caused by abduction or external rotation injury
` Components - medial malleolar #/deltoid
lig.rupture, fibular # & # of the
posterior lip of the articular surface of
tibia
` 500 external rotation view - assessment of size &
displacement of posterior malleolar fragment.
` Fragment size > 25-30% of the wt. bearing surface
requires ORIF
` Posterior lip # should be fixed before reduction of either
the medial or lateral malleolar #
67. SYNDESMOTIC INJURIES
Pronation- external rotation, pronation abduction
and supination external rotation injuries.
Syndesmotic injuries extending > 4.5cm proximal
to the ankle jt alter the joint mechanics, but that
extending < 3cm proximal to the joint dont.
INDICATIONS FOR FIXATION:
i. Associated proximal fibular #s for which fixation is
not planned and involves a medial injury that
cannot be stabilised.
ii. Injuries extending > 5cm proximal to the plafond.
68. SYNDESMOTIC INJURIES contd .
Normally intraoperative roentgenograms should
demonstrate a clear space of < 5mm b/w medial wall
of fibula & lateral wall of posterior tibial malleolus.
Fixation of syndesmosis is either with oblique pins or
screws inserted trrough the lateral malleolus into the
distal tibia.
The screws should be placed through both cortices of
fibula & either one or both cortices of the tibia.
Screw position- 2cm proximal to plafond, parallel to
the joint surface, 300 anterior, perpendicular to TF jt..
69. Fixation of Syndesmosis
Fix fibula
anatomically
Make sure ankle
mortise is reduced
Hold reduction with
clamp
Do not lag!
? Large vs. small
fragment screw
? 3 vs. 4 cortices
? Screw removal
70. Postoperative Care
Well padded splint
immobilization
Ice and elevation
Non weight bearing
for 6 weeks
Early weight bearing
possible
Early conversion to
brace and ROM
71. COMPLICATIONS
Mal union
# Can occur with lateral malleolus,
medial malleolus or the
posterior malleolus.
# Predisposes to late degenerative
changes and pain.
72. COMPLICATIONS contd…
Treatment-
# Lat mall - osteotomy through the # site, fixation with plate
& screws and bone grafting.
# Medial mall - osteotomy through # site & fixation with
malleolar screw & k wire.
# Post mall - if >25% of articular surface involved, osteotomy
through # site, reduction& fixation with k wire & malleolar
screws.
73. COMPLICATIONS contd…
Non union
# > in conservatively treated patients.
# Non union of lat. malleolus <
med.malleolus.
# Treatment- non union site exposed &
ends are freshened , rigidly fixed with a
malleolar screw & k wire.
74. COMPLICATIONS contd…
Sudecks atrophy-
# Characterised by pain, demineralisation,edema,
shiny skin with reduced ROM.
# Prevented by early ROM exercises, elevation of
the affected limb.
# once the condition has developed – intensive
physiotherapy, prolonged elevation & use of
sympathetic blocking agents.
75. COMPLICATIONS contd…
Wound healing
# Plate application over lateral malleolus interferes
with wound healing.
# Prevented by meticulous closure of subcutaneous
layer to cover the implant & constant elevation of
the limb for first 5-7 days.
76. COMPLICATIONS contd…
Infection
# Associated with poor closure ,failure to elevate the
limb postoperatively
# Treatment - leave the implant in situ, dressing to
be done regularly.
- when the repaired # has united,
implant to be removed, debridement
under antibiotic coverage & later
SSG.
77. COMPLICATIONS contd…
Fixation failure
# Loosening or backing out of screws
usually seen in distal fibula.
# Treatment - if screw loosens prior to
healing of syndesmotic
ligament it should be
replaced.
80. Reudi & Allgower’s
Type Pathology
1 Undisplaced
2 Displaced with joint incongruity
3 Marked comminution with
crushing of the subchondral
cancellous bone
82. Initial treatment
Reduction of any dislocation and
covering of exposed wounds if present
Assess neuro-vascular status
Check for evidence of compartment
syndrome
Splint fracture which may require
temporary skeletal traction
83. Investigations
X-ray plus CT
Timing of surgery
Type II and III - goal is to keep talus
centred under the tibia, while soft tissue
heal over 7 to 21 days
84. Surgical options
1. ORIF
Medial and anterior incisions with full
thickness flaps developed at level of the
periosteum. These incisions must be at
least 7 cm apart to protect the viability
of the intervening skin bridge
85. Steps
Fibula # brought out to length and fixed with plate
(DCP)
Tibial # exposed and reduced, held with temporary
K-wires – usually 4 main fragments
K-wires replaced with interfragmentary screws and
fixed with buttress plate
Closure of wounds – tension must be avoided and
if present close deep layers and return later for
delayed 1º closure of skin
86. 2. Fine wire fixation with circular
frames
Using either the Ilizarov or hybrid
external fixators
This can be combined with limited
internal fixation of the tibia using inter-
fragmentary screws and fixation of the
fibula
87. 3. Trans-articular external fixation
Will align the tibia but will not address
the central depression of the joint
surface.
Useful as first part of 2 -stage
procedure (to allow soft tissue
management & CT & planning)
88. Summary
You WILL see ankle fractures
Taken for granted
Reduce the mortise anatomically
Fibular length
Stable syndesmosis
Anatomic reduction and debridement
medially
Proper management leads to excellent
outcomes