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Autonomic nervous system  & neurotransmitter in psychiatry
INTRODUCTION:-
The organs (the "viscera") of
our body, such as the heart, stomach and
intestines, are regulated by a part of the
nervous system called the autonomic
nervous system (ANS). The ANS is part of
the peripheral nervous system and it
controls many organs and muscles within
the body. In most situations, we are
unaware of the workings of the ANS
because it functions in an involuntary,
reflexive manner. For example, we do not
notice when blood vessels change size or
when our heart beats faster.www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
The ANS is most important in two
situations:
 In emergencies that cause stress and
require us to
"fight" or take "flight" (run away)
and
 In nonemergencies that allow us to
"rest" and "digest."
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
The ANS regulates:
 Muscles
 in the skin (around hair follicles; smooth muscle)
 around blood vessels (smooth muscle)
 in the eye (the iris; smooth muscle)
 in the stomach, intestines and bladder (smooth
muscle)
 of the heart (cardiac muscle)
 Glands
 The ANS is divided into two parts:
1.The sympathetic nervous system
2. The parasympathetic nervous system
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
1. Sympathetic Nervous System:-
The sympathetic nervous system originates
in the spinal cord. Specifically, the cell bodies
of the first neuron (the preganglionic neuron)
are located in the thoracic and lumbar spinal
cord. Axons from these neurons project to a
chain of ganglia located near the spinal cord.
In most cases, this neuron makes a synapse
with another neuron (post-ganglionic neuron)
in the ganglion. A few preganglionic neurons
go to other ganglia outside of the sympathetic
chain and synapse there. The post-ganglionic
neuron then projects to the "target" - either a
muscle or a gland.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System:-
The cell bodies of the
parasympathetic nervous system are
located in the spinal cord (sacral region)
and in the medulla. In the medulla, the
cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X form the
preganglionic parasympathetic fibers. The
preganglionic fiber from the medulla or
spinal cord projects to ganglia very close
to the target organ and makes a synapse.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Structure Sympathetic Stimulation Parasympathetic Stimulation
Iris (eye muscle) Pupil dilation Pupil constriction
Salivary Glands Saliva production reduced Saliva production increased
Oral/Nasal
Mucosa
Mucus production reduced Mucus production increased
Heart Heart rate and force increased Heart rate and force decreased
Lung Bronchial muscle relaxed Bronchial muscle contracted
Stomach Peristalsis reduced Gastric juice secreted; motility
increased
Small Intestine Motility reduced Digestion increased
Large Intestine Motility reduced Secretions and motility increased
Liver Increased conversion of
glycogen to glucose
Kidney Decreased urine secretion Increased urine secretion
Adrenal
medulla
Norepinephrine and
epinephrine secreted
Bladder Wall relaxed
Sphincter closed
Wall contracted
Sphincter relaxedwww.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
DEFINATION:-
Neurotransmitters are chemicals located and released in
the brain to allow an impulse from one nerve cell to pass
to another nerve cell.
DESCRIPTION:-
There are approximately 50 neurotransmitters identified.
There are billions of nerve cells located in the brain, which
do not directly touch each other. Nerve cells communicate
messages by secreting neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters can excite or inhibit neurons (nerve
cells). Some common neurotransmitters are
acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin and
gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA). Acetylcholine and
norepinephrine are excitatory neurotransmitters while
dopamine, serotonin, and GABA are inhibitory. Each
neurotransmitter can directly or indirectly influence
neurons in a specific portion of the brain, thereby affecting
behavior.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
MECHANISM OF IMPULSE TRANSMISSION:-
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
A nerve impulse travels through a nerve in a long, slender cellular
structure called an axon, and it eventually reaches a structure
called the presynaptic membrane, which contains
neurotransmitters to be released in a free space called the
synaptic cleft. Freely flowing neurotransmitter molecules are
picked up by receptors (structures that appear on cellular
surfaces that pick up molecules that fit into them like a "lock
and key") located
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit messages from one
nerve cell (neuron) to another. The nerve impulse travels from
the first nerve cell through the axon—a single smooth body
arising from the nerve cell— to the axon terminal and the
synaptic knobs. Each synaptic knob communicates with a
dendrite or cell body of another neuron, and the synaptic knobs
contain neurovesicles that store and release neurotransmitters.
The synapse lies between the synaptic knob and the next cell.
For the impulse to continue traveling across the synapse to
reach the next cell, the synaptic knobs release the
neurotransmitter into that space, and the next nerve cell is
stimulated to pick up the impulse and continue it.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
NEUROTRANSMITTERS IN CNS:-
I. Cholinergics :-
a) Acetylcholine:-
Function:- Acetylcholine are manifold &
include sleep, arousal, pain
perception, modulation & coordination of
movement, & memory acquisition &
retention. Cholinergic mechanisms may
have some role in certain disorders of
motor behaviour & memory, such as
Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, & Alzheimer’s
diseases. www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
II. Monoamines:-
a) Norepinephrine:-
Functions:- It include the regulation of
mood, cognition, perception,
locomotion, cardiovascular
functioning, & sleep & arousal. The
activity of norepinephrine also has
been implicated in certain mood
disorders such as depression &
mania, in anxiety state & in
schizophrenia.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
b) Dopamine:-
Functions:- It include regulation of movement &
coordination, emotions, voluntary decision-
making ability. Increased levels of dopamine are
associated with mania & schizophrenia.
c) Serotonin:-
Functions:- It may play a role in sleep & arousal,
libido, appetite, mood, aggression, & pain
perception. The serotoninergic system has been
implicated in the etiology of certain
psychopathological conditions including anxiety
states, mood disorders, & schizophrenia.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
d) Histamine:-
The role of histamine in
mediating allergic & inflammatory
reactions has been well documented. It’s
role in the CNS as a neurotransmitter has
only recently been confirmed, & the
availability of information is limited. The
highest concentrations of histamine are
found within various regions of the
hypothalamus. The exact processes
mediated by histamine with the CNS are
uncertain, some data suggest that
histamine may play a role in the
depressive illness.www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
III. Amino Acids:-
a) Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid:-
Function:- It prevent postsynaptic
excitation, interrupting the progression
of the electrical impulse at the synaptic
junction. This function is significant when
slowdown of body activity is
advantageous.
Alterations in the GABA system
have been implicated in the etiology of
anxiety disorders, movement disorders
(eg: Huntington’s disease), & various
forms of epilepsy.www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
b) Glycine:-
The highest concentration of glycine
in the CNS are found in the spinal cord &
brainstem. Glycine appears to be the
neurotransmitter of recurrent inhibition of
motor neurons within the spinal cord, & is
possible involved in the regulation of
spinal & brainstem reflexes. It has been
implicated in the pathogenesis of certain
types of spastic disorders & in “glycine
encephalopathy”, which is known to occur
with toxic accumulation of the
neurotransmitter in the brain &
cerebrospinal fluid.www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
c) Glutamate and Aspartate:-
Functions:- Glutamate & aspartate
function in the relay sensory information &
in the regulation of various motor & spinal
reflexes.
-Alteration in this systems has been
implicated in the etiology of certain
neurodegenerative disorder, such as
Huntington’s disease, temporal lobe
epilepsy, & spinal cerebellar degeneration.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
IV. Neuropeptides:-
a.) Opioid Peptides:-
Function:- Opioid pepties are thought to have a
role in pain modulation, which their natural
morphine-like properties. They are released in
response to painful stimuli, & may be
responsible for producing the enalgesic effect
following acupuncture.
Opioid peptides alter the release of dopamine &
affect the spontaneous activity of the
dopaminergic neurons. These finding may have
some implication for opioid peptide-dopamine
interaction in the etiology of schizophrenia.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
b.) Substance P. :-
Functions:- It has been found to be highly
concentrated in sensory fibers, & for this
reason is thought to play a role in sensory
transmission, particularly in the regulation
of pain.
It has been associated with Huntington’s
disease, dementia of the Alzheimer’s type
& mood disorders.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
c.) Somatostatin:-
It (also called growth hormone-
inhibiting hormone) is found in the cerebral
cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, basal
ganglia, brainstem, & spinal cord & has multiple
effect on the CNS. It exerts inhibitory effects on
the release of norepinephrine & stimulatory
effects on serotonine. It stimulates the turnover
& release of dopamine in the basal ganglia &
acetylcholine in the brainstem & hippocampus.
Postmortem examinations have revealed high
concentrations of somatostatin in brain
specimens of clients with Huntington’s
disease, & low concentrations in those with
Alzheimer’s disease.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com

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Autonomic nervous system & neurotransmitter in psychiatry

  • 2. INTRODUCTION:- The organs (the "viscera") of our body, such as the heart, stomach and intestines, are regulated by a part of the nervous system called the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The ANS is part of the peripheral nervous system and it controls many organs and muscles within the body. In most situations, we are unaware of the workings of the ANS because it functions in an involuntary, reflexive manner. For example, we do not notice when blood vessels change size or when our heart beats faster.www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 3. The ANS is most important in two situations:  In emergencies that cause stress and require us to "fight" or take "flight" (run away) and  In nonemergencies that allow us to "rest" and "digest." www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 4. The ANS regulates:  Muscles  in the skin (around hair follicles; smooth muscle)  around blood vessels (smooth muscle)  in the eye (the iris; smooth muscle)  in the stomach, intestines and bladder (smooth muscle)  of the heart (cardiac muscle)  Glands  The ANS is divided into two parts: 1.The sympathetic nervous system 2. The parasympathetic nervous system www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 5. 1. Sympathetic Nervous System:- The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord. Specifically, the cell bodies of the first neuron (the preganglionic neuron) are located in the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord. Axons from these neurons project to a chain of ganglia located near the spinal cord. In most cases, this neuron makes a synapse with another neuron (post-ganglionic neuron) in the ganglion. A few preganglionic neurons go to other ganglia outside of the sympathetic chain and synapse there. The post-ganglionic neuron then projects to the "target" - either a muscle or a gland. www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 6. 2. Parasympathetic Nervous System:- The cell bodies of the parasympathetic nervous system are located in the spinal cord (sacral region) and in the medulla. In the medulla, the cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X form the preganglionic parasympathetic fibers. The preganglionic fiber from the medulla or spinal cord projects to ganglia very close to the target organ and makes a synapse. www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 7. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Structure Sympathetic Stimulation Parasympathetic Stimulation Iris (eye muscle) Pupil dilation Pupil constriction Salivary Glands Saliva production reduced Saliva production increased Oral/Nasal Mucosa Mucus production reduced Mucus production increased Heart Heart rate and force increased Heart rate and force decreased Lung Bronchial muscle relaxed Bronchial muscle contracted Stomach Peristalsis reduced Gastric juice secreted; motility increased Small Intestine Motility reduced Digestion increased Large Intestine Motility reduced Secretions and motility increased Liver Increased conversion of glycogen to glucose Kidney Decreased urine secretion Increased urine secretion Adrenal medulla Norepinephrine and epinephrine secreted Bladder Wall relaxed Sphincter closed Wall contracted Sphincter relaxedwww.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 9. NEUROTRANSMITTERS DEFINATION:- Neurotransmitters are chemicals located and released in the brain to allow an impulse from one nerve cell to pass to another nerve cell. DESCRIPTION:- There are approximately 50 neurotransmitters identified. There are billions of nerve cells located in the brain, which do not directly touch each other. Nerve cells communicate messages by secreting neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters can excite or inhibit neurons (nerve cells). Some common neurotransmitters are acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin and gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA). Acetylcholine and norepinephrine are excitatory neurotransmitters while dopamine, serotonin, and GABA are inhibitory. Each neurotransmitter can directly or indirectly influence neurons in a specific portion of the brain, thereby affecting behavior. www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 10. MECHANISM OF IMPULSE TRANSMISSION:- www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 11. A nerve impulse travels through a nerve in a long, slender cellular structure called an axon, and it eventually reaches a structure called the presynaptic membrane, which contains neurotransmitters to be released in a free space called the synaptic cleft. Freely flowing neurotransmitter molecules are picked up by receptors (structures that appear on cellular surfaces that pick up molecules that fit into them like a "lock and key") located Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit messages from one nerve cell (neuron) to another. The nerve impulse travels from the first nerve cell through the axon—a single smooth body arising from the nerve cell— to the axon terminal and the synaptic knobs. Each synaptic knob communicates with a dendrite or cell body of another neuron, and the synaptic knobs contain neurovesicles that store and release neurotransmitters. The synapse lies between the synaptic knob and the next cell. For the impulse to continue traveling across the synapse to reach the next cell, the synaptic knobs release the neurotransmitter into that space, and the next nerve cell is stimulated to pick up the impulse and continue it. www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 12. NEUROTRANSMITTERS IN CNS:- I. Cholinergics :- a) Acetylcholine:- Function:- Acetylcholine are manifold & include sleep, arousal, pain perception, modulation & coordination of movement, & memory acquisition & retention. Cholinergic mechanisms may have some role in certain disorders of motor behaviour & memory, such as Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, & Alzheimer’s diseases. www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 13. II. Monoamines:- a) Norepinephrine:- Functions:- It include the regulation of mood, cognition, perception, locomotion, cardiovascular functioning, & sleep & arousal. The activity of norepinephrine also has been implicated in certain mood disorders such as depression & mania, in anxiety state & in schizophrenia. www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 14. b) Dopamine:- Functions:- It include regulation of movement & coordination, emotions, voluntary decision- making ability. Increased levels of dopamine are associated with mania & schizophrenia. c) Serotonin:- Functions:- It may play a role in sleep & arousal, libido, appetite, mood, aggression, & pain perception. The serotoninergic system has been implicated in the etiology of certain psychopathological conditions including anxiety states, mood disorders, & schizophrenia. www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 15. d) Histamine:- The role of histamine in mediating allergic & inflammatory reactions has been well documented. It’s role in the CNS as a neurotransmitter has only recently been confirmed, & the availability of information is limited. The highest concentrations of histamine are found within various regions of the hypothalamus. The exact processes mediated by histamine with the CNS are uncertain, some data suggest that histamine may play a role in the depressive illness.www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 16. III. Amino Acids:- a) Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid:- Function:- It prevent postsynaptic excitation, interrupting the progression of the electrical impulse at the synaptic junction. This function is significant when slowdown of body activity is advantageous. Alterations in the GABA system have been implicated in the etiology of anxiety disorders, movement disorders (eg: Huntington’s disease), & various forms of epilepsy.www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 17. b) Glycine:- The highest concentration of glycine in the CNS are found in the spinal cord & brainstem. Glycine appears to be the neurotransmitter of recurrent inhibition of motor neurons within the spinal cord, & is possible involved in the regulation of spinal & brainstem reflexes. It has been implicated in the pathogenesis of certain types of spastic disorders & in “glycine encephalopathy”, which is known to occur with toxic accumulation of the neurotransmitter in the brain & cerebrospinal fluid.www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 18. c) Glutamate and Aspartate:- Functions:- Glutamate & aspartate function in the relay sensory information & in the regulation of various motor & spinal reflexes. -Alteration in this systems has been implicated in the etiology of certain neurodegenerative disorder, such as Huntington’s disease, temporal lobe epilepsy, & spinal cerebellar degeneration. www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 19. IV. Neuropeptides:- a.) Opioid Peptides:- Function:- Opioid pepties are thought to have a role in pain modulation, which their natural morphine-like properties. They are released in response to painful stimuli, & may be responsible for producing the enalgesic effect following acupuncture. Opioid peptides alter the release of dopamine & affect the spontaneous activity of the dopaminergic neurons. These finding may have some implication for opioid peptide-dopamine interaction in the etiology of schizophrenia. www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 20. b.) Substance P. :- Functions:- It has been found to be highly concentrated in sensory fibers, & for this reason is thought to play a role in sensory transmission, particularly in the regulation of pain. It has been associated with Huntington’s disease, dementia of the Alzheimer’s type & mood disorders. www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
  • 21. c.) Somatostatin:- It (also called growth hormone- inhibiting hormone) is found in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, basal ganglia, brainstem, & spinal cord & has multiple effect on the CNS. It exerts inhibitory effects on the release of norepinephrine & stimulatory effects on serotonine. It stimulates the turnover & release of dopamine in the basal ganglia & acetylcholine in the brainstem & hippocampus. Postmortem examinations have revealed high concentrations of somatostatin in brain specimens of clients with Huntington’s disease, & low concentrations in those with Alzheimer’s disease. www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com