SlideShare una empresa de Scribd logo
1 de 8
Descargar para leer sin conexión
Michael Dauderstädt and Cem Keltek
Inequality in Europe
Relatively Stable, Absolutely Alarming
www.fes.de/de/politik-fuer-europa-2017plus/
Impressum:
© 2016
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung
Herausgeber: Abteilung Internationaler Dialog
Internationale Politikanalyse
Hiroshimastraße 28, 10785 Berlin
www.fes.de/ipa
Bestellungen/Kontakt: info.ipa@fes.de
Die in dieser Publikation zum Ausdruck gebrachten Ansichten
sind nicht notwendigerweise die der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung.
Eine gewerbliche Nutzung der von der FES herausgegebenen
Medien ist ohne schriftliche Zustimmung durch die FES nicht
gestattet.
ISBN: 978-3-95861-391-1
Titelmotiv: © shutterstock / xalex,
just in print
Gestaltung: www.stetzer.net
Druck: www.druckerei-brandt.de
Januar 2016
FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG
EIN PROJEKT DER FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG
IN DEN JAHREN 2015 BIS 2017
Europe needs social democracy!
Why do we really want Europe? Can we demonstrate to European citizens the opportunities
offered by social politics and a strong social democracy in Europe? This is the aim of the new
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung project »Politics for Europe«. It shows that European integration can
be done in a democratic, economic and socially balanced way and with a reliable foreign policy.
The following issues will be particularly important:
– Democratic Europe
– Economic and social policy in Europe
– Foreign and security policy in Europe
The FES will devote itself to these issues in publications and events throughout 2015–2017:
we start from citizens’ concerns, identify new positions with decision-makers and lay out
alternative policy approaches. We want a debate with you about »Politics for Europe«!
Further information on the project can be found here:
http://www.fes.de/de/politik-fuer-europa-2017plus/
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung
The Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (FES) is the oldest political foundation in Germany with a rich
tradition dating back to its foundation in 1925. Today, it remains loyal to the legacy of its
namesake and campaigns for the core ideas and values of social democracy: freedom, justice
and solidarity. It has a close connection to social democracy and free trade unions.
FES promotes the advancement of social democracy, in particular by:
– Political educational work to strengthen civil society
– Think Tanks
– International cooperation with our international network of offices in more than 100 countries
– Support for talented young people
– Maintaining the collective memory of social democracy with archives, libraries and more.
About the authors:
Dr Michael Dauderstädt is managing director of Dietz-Verlag and up to 2013 was director of
the division for Economic and Social Policy of the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung.
Cem Keltek is an economist and former recipient of a Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung scholarship.
Responsible for this publication in the FES
Dr. Michael Bröning, Head of Department International Policy Analysis
Editor: Dominika Biegon, policy analyst for European Politics,
Co-Editor: Sabine Dörfler
INEQUALITY IN EUROPE  1
CONTENTS
2	 At a Glance
3	 Multi-level Inequality in Europe
3	 Alarming Absolute Inequality
FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 2
AT A GLANCE
Income inequality in the European Union (EU) has
barely changed for a number of years. Neither im-
provements like those before 2009 nor a substan-
tial worsening have been observed. However, this
applies only to relative inequality, which indica-
tes the income of richer people, regions and coun-
tries as a multiple of that of poorer ones. If one
looks at the absolute differences between the hig-
hest and the lowest incomes, however, an alarming
increase in inequality is to be observed in Europe.
Viewed superficially, income inequality appears to be a simple
concept. It covers a wide range, from low to high via middle
incomes. But how is inequality measured? In economic sta-
tistics and theory a number of measures are used, such as
the Gini coefficient,1
standard deviation or the quintile ratio
S80/S20.2
Also informative is the ratio or distance between
1	 The Gini coefficient varies between 0 and 1 (or as a percentage between
0 and 100), with 0 signifying absolutely equal distribution of incomes and I
(or 100) a case in which all income goes to one person.
2	 The quintile ratio is the ratio between the incomes of the richest and the
poorest fifths (= quintile) of the total group.
the highest and lowest incomes. If these indicators fall, one
talks about convergence, otherwise of divergence. Economics
differentiates here between sigma convergence, when in-
come dispersion diminishes, and beta convergence, when
lower incomes grow more rapidly than higher incomes.3
And what is meant by »income«? With regard to coun-
tries it is usually per capita GDP. In relation to households two
forms are differentiated: market income and disposable in-
come, the latter is derived from the former by subtracting ta-
xes and including transfer payments, such as pensions. Here
we look at disposable income on the basis of EU-SILC4
data
from the Statistical Office of the European Union (Eurostat).
3	 Cf. Dauderstädt, Michael 2016: Konvergenz und Divergenz in der
Europäischen Union [Convergence and divergence in the Euro-pean Union],
in: ifo Schnelldienst 69 (17), pp. 12–15, http://www.dauderstaedt.de/pdf/
sd.2016-17-text-dauderstaedt.pdf (22.02.17) and Dauderstädt, Michael
2014: Convergence in the crisis: European integration in jeopardy, Interna-
tional Policy Analysis, Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, Berlin, http://library.fes.de/
pdf-files/id/ipa/11001.pdf (5.04.17) or Goecke, Henry 2013: Europa driftet
auseinander – Ist dies das Ende der realwirtschaftlichen Konvergenz? [Europe
drifting apart: is this the end of real economic convergence?], in: IW-Trends –
Vierteljahresschrift zur empirischen Wirtschaftsforschung 40 (4), Institut der
deutschen Wirtschaft Köln, pp. 1–15, https://www.iwkoeln.de/studien/iw-
trends/beitrag/henry-goecke-europa-driftet-auseinander-138522 (22.02.17).
4	 EU-SILC = EU Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (based on
household surveys).
Table 1
The poorest (red) and richest (grey) quintiles in the EU, 2014 (in euros and PPS)
2015 Euro PPS
Member state Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
Bulgaria 1.256 2.388 3.350 4.557 8.902 2.595 4.933 6.921 9.414 18.388
Romania 685 1.563 2.310 3.134 5.674 1.289 2.941 4.347 5.898 10.679
Latvia 2.243 4.081 5.828 8.110 14.579 3.114 5.665 8.092 11.259 20.241
Lithuania 2.005 3.625 5.186 7.451 14.395 3.194 5.774 8.260 11.867 22.929
Poland 2.512 4.217 5.562 7.220 12.366 4.499 7.552 9.961 12.930 22.147
Estonia 3.169 5.580 7.947 11.089 19.663 4.190 7.380 10.509 14.664 26.002
Hungary 2.220 3.571 4.586 5.915 9.530 3.858 6.207 7.971 10.281 16.563
Slovakia 3.419 5.623 6.900 8.430 12.088 5.042 8.293 10.175 12.433 17.827
Czech Republic 4.214 6.123 7.424 9.185 14.777 6.615 9.612 11.654 14.419 23.196
Portugal 3.436 6.232 8.416 11.234 20.656 4.203 7.623 10.294 13.740 25.263
Greece 2.714 5.443 7.515 10.103 17.626 3.177 6.371 8.796 11.826 20.631
Malta 6.768 10.166 13.485 17.321 28.082 8.367 12.568 16.671 21.414 34.718
Spain 4.549 9.499 13.360 18.375 31.255 4.928 10.290 14.472 19.906 33.858
Slovenia 6.280 9.831 12.321 15.060 22.553 7.691 12.040 15.090 18.444 27.620
Italy 5.996 11.593 15.884 20.959 35.014 5.825 11.263 15.431 20.362 34.016
Cyprus 6.780 10.281 13.827 18.563 35.251 7.527 11.414 15.350 20.609 39.136
Germany 9.339 15.845 20.723 26.782 44.788 9.202 15.613 20.420 26.390 44.131
France 11.219 16.924 21.471 27.179 48.094 10.417 15.715 19.937 25.237 44.657
Belgium 10.891 16.621 21.753 27.484 41.578 10.019 15.291 20.012 25.284 38.250
United Kingdom 9.540 15.808 21.043 28.373 49.901 8.068 13.368 17.795 23.993 42.199
Austria 11.649 18.413 23.340 29.250 47.099 10.909 17.244 21.858 27.393 44.109
Finland 12.920 18.868 23.766 29.711 45.929 10.564 15.427 19.432 24.293 37.553
Netherlands 11.346 16.957 21.346 26.600 43.367 10.331 15.440 19.436 24.220 39.487
Sweden 12.974 20.904 26.651 33.104 48.790 10.332 16.648 21.224 26.364 38.856
Ireland 10.528 16.159 21.617 28.475 47.391 5.737 8.804 11.778 15.515 25.822
Denmark 14.056 22.553 28.388 35.248 57.340 10.101 16.208 20.402 25.332 41.209
Luxembourg 17.385 26.925 35.081 45.258 73.832 14.435 22.356 29.128 37.579 61.304
Notes: The light shaded quintiles only go proportionately into the corresponding EU quintile; Croatia, which acceded to the EU in 2013, was not included in order to maintain comparability with previous years.
Source: Eurostat and authors‘ calculations.
INEQUALITY IN EUROPE  3
MULTI-LEVEL INEQUALITY IN EUROPE
For an economy consisting of 28 countries, like that of
the EU, inequality is even more complex. One has to exa-
mine the distribution on two levels, within and between
countries, as well as its development. To that end, for
ten years now we have been using a method that allows
us to capture both levels at once. The analysis presented
here uses the latest data for 2015. We refer to the aver-
age incomes of all quintiles provided by Eurostat (in other
words, for each fifth of the inhabitants) of all 28 mem-
ber states (see Table 1). On that basis we constructed the
EU quintile (with around 100 million people) and thus are
able to calculate the quintile ratio S80/S20 for the whole
EU (the red and green areas in Table 1). Because inco-
mes by international comparison have different purcha-
sing power due to the differential development of price
levels and exchange rates we refer to the values in eu-
ros at exchange rates (left hand side of the table) and also
in terms of purchasing power standards (PPS; right hand
side of the table). Inequality is lower measured in PPS
because purchasing power is higher in poorer countries.
The development of European inequality is the re-
sult of changes in income distribution at both levels. And
inequality between member states is higher than ine-
quality within them. Compared at exchange rates the
average per capita income of the richest countries, for
example, is ten times as high as in the poorest. Within
member states inequality has increased in most coun-
tries in recent years, although not particularly shar-
ply, on average. Developments between 2014 and
2015, however, scarcely indicate any change: on aver-
age in the EU the S80/S20 ratio remained at 5.2, ac-
cording to Eurostat (see Figure 1, lowest line). Behind
this, however, national developments diverged. For ex-
ample, in Lithuania the S80/S20 ratio rose from 6.1 to
7.5 (the sharpest increase in the EU) and in Romania
from 7.2 to 8.3 (the highest value in the EU), while in
Germany – probably due to the introduction of the mi-
nimum wage – it fell from 5.1 in 2014 to 4.8 in 2015.5
Generally speaking, however, the larger changes
are to be observed in income distribution between
member states. For a long time incomes in the poo-
rer member states of central and eastern Europe
have been growing much more strongly than in-
comes in the richer northwest of the EU, not to
mention the southern periphery (Greece, Spain,
Portugal, Italy), whose incomes lie somewhere in the
middle in the EU and have fallen or stagnated.
If one estimates inequality in the EU as a whole
by calculating the EU-wide S80/S20 ratio using the
method described above a value of around 6.5 in
PPS and 9.5 in euros at exchange rates is genera-
ted for 2015 (see Figure 1). These figures are much
higher than Eurostat’s 5.2, which neglects the dif-
ferences between countries. Stagnation is to be ob-
served in development between 2014 and 2015,
too, as has already been the case since 2011.
5	 All figures from the Eurostat EU-SILC survey [ilc_di11].
ALARMING ABSOLUTE INEQUALITY
The fact that European inequality fell only up to 2009 and
has now remained stubbornly at the same level for years
is certainly no occasion for celebration. However, this pic-
ture of falling (up to 2009) and then stagnating (since
2011) inequality is also due to the selected indicator, the
quintile ratio S80/S20, which measures relative inequality.
It has already been pointed out with regard to global in­
equality, which is also a multi-level phenomenon, that the
focus on relative inequality, which has also fallen slightly
on a global scale, conceals rising absolute inequality.6
If one chooses a measure that illustrates the absolute
gaps between incomes as indicator, the development of in-
equality in Europe appears much more alarming. Thus the
standard deviation over all 135 (5 x 27) quintiles has increa-
sed constantly since 2009 (cf. Figure 2). Only in 2015 could
a slight improvement be observed in a measurement in PPS.
6	 Cf. Nino-Zarazua, Miguel et al. 2016: Global Inequality: Relatively
Lower, Absolutely Higher, in: Review of Income and Wealth, DOI: 10.1111/
roiw.12240, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/roiw.12240/full
(22.02.17)
Figure 1
Development of income inequality in the EU
(S80/S20 income ratios)
Note: PPS = purchasing power standards; to maintain comparability we had to leave out Croatia.
Source: Eurostat; authors‘ calculations.
EU-25 Euro
EU-25 PPS
EU-27 Euro
EU-27 PPS
EU-27 Eurostat
Figure 2
Development of income inequality in the EU
(standard deviation in euros and PPS)
Source: Eurostat; authors‘ calculations.
Euro
PPS
FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 4
This discrepancy between relative and absolute in­-
equality conceals the dismal mathematical logic of am­
bivalent convergence of initially very different incomes.
The following example serves as an illustration: at the
beginning (for example, on EU accession) the per capita
income of the poorer country is a fifth of that of the ri-
cher country (in the EU often even less). Subsequently, it
grows – a rather optimistic long-term prognosis – by 5
per cent a year, while the GDP of the richer country in-
creases by only 2 per cent (beta convergence). Then the
absolute gap between the two countries still grows for
25 years , only after 56 years is income equality achie-
ved (see Figure 3). The standard deviation also increases
for 25 years before falling again (sigma convergence).7
An even more dramatic picture of absolute inequality
emerges if one compares the average per capita income of
the richest and poorest national quintiles in Europe. As is
evident in Table 1, the richest national quintile in Europe is
that of Luxembourg (Q5) with an annual income of 73,832
euros (at exchange rates) and 61,304 euros at PPS. The poo-
rest quintile is that of Romania (Q1) with an annual income
of only 685 euros or 1,289 euros in PPS (see Table 1). The
7	 For the basis of calculation see the mathematical annex in figure 3.
ratio is more than 1:100 at exchange rates and 1:47 in PPS.
The absolute gap stands at 73,147 euros (exchange rates)
and 60,015 euros (PPS). Furthermore, these indicators of
extreme inequality have deteriorated further since 2009.
If one compares incomes at exchange rates, people in
the poorest EU countries (above all Bulgaria and Romania)
who belong to the richest 20 per cent there, are among
the poorest in the richest EU countries (Denmark and
Luxembourg). To put it another way, a person’s living stan-
dards in the EU depend more on the country they are born
and grow up in than on whether they belong to the re-
levant upper or lower stratum of their national society.
One might ask what these income differentials mean.
Probably their most important consequence is the high
emigration from the poorer EU member states to the richer
ones. But while this migration contributes to income conver-
gence, countries such as Romania, Lithuania and Latvia have
lost around 10 per cent of their populations. In the recei-
ving countries immigration has bolstered nationalist-populist
tendencies, for example, in England and Wales, where the
imagined possibility of restricting immigration was one of
the main reasons for the Brexit vote. However, the figures on
inequality and its dynamics show that there is little prospect
of reducing absolute inequality in the foreseeable future.
Figure 3
Difficult catch-up processes (in per cent and period in years )
Mathematical Annex to Figure 3
At=A0*Ga
t
, where At is the income of poorer people at timepoint t, A0 initial income (t=0) and Ga the growth factor. The growth factor is G=1+g (g is the growth rate). If, then, the growth rate is 2
per cent, the growth factor is 1.02.
Rt=R0*Gr
t
, where Rt is the income of richer people at timepoint t, R0 initial income (t=0) and Gr the growth factor.
The year of catching up is timepoint t, with regard to which At=Rt, is true and so: A0*Ga
t
=R0*Gr
t
Solving this equation for t, we get: Tparity=ln(R0    /A0)  /  ln(Ga   /Gr).
The timepoint of the biggest gap, after which the gap starts to diminish, is timepoint Tmax, at which the gap Dt=Rt – At reaches its maximum.
It is calculated using the following derivation:
d/dt Dt=d/dt (R0*Gr
t 
– A0*Ga
t
) = R0*lnGr*Gr
t 
– A0*lnGa*Ga
t 
= 
0.
Tmax
 
= 
ln(R0*lnGr 
 
/A0*lnGa) 
/  
ln(Ga
   
/Gr).
GDP poor
GDP rich
absolute gap
ratio
Source: authors‘ calculations;
see Mathematical Annex.
www.fes.de/de/politik-fuer-europa-2017plus/
Impressum:
© 2016
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung
Herausgeber: Abteilung Internationaler Dialog
Internationale Politikanalyse
Hiroshimastraße 28, 10785 Berlin
www.fes.de/ipa
Bestellungen/Kontakt: info.ipa@fes.de
Die in dieser Publikation zum Ausdruck gebrachten Ansichten
sind nicht notwendigerweise die der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung.
Eine gewerbliche Nutzung der von der FES herausgegebenen
Medien ist ohne schriftliche Zustimmung durch die FES nicht
gestattet.
ISBN: 978-3-95861-391-1
Titelmotiv: © shutterstock / xalex,
just in print
Gestaltung: www.stetzer.net
Druck: www.druckerei-brandt.de
Januar 2016
Imprint
© 2017
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung
Publisher: International Policy Analysis,
Hiroshimastraße 28, D-10785 Berlin, Germany
www.fes.de/ipa
Orders / Contact: info.ipa@fes.de
The statements and conclusions are the sole responsibility
of the author and do not represent an official opinion of
the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung.
Commercial use of all media published by the Friedrich-
Ebert-Stiftung (FES) is not permitted without the written
consent of the FES.
ISBN: 978-3-95861-802-2
Front cover illustration: M. Jeremy Goldman (flickr, CC BY-NC 2.0)
Design concept: www.stetzer.net
Realisation / Typesetting: pertext, Berlin
Print: www.druckerei-brandt.de
April 2017
www.fes.de/de/politik-fuer-europa-2017plus/

Más contenido relacionado

Similar a Inequality in europe

The accelerator and_incubator_ecosystem_in_europe
The accelerator and_incubator_ecosystem_in_europeThe accelerator and_incubator_ecosystem_in_europe
The accelerator and_incubator_ecosystem_in_europeBruno Schneider - Le Saout
 
The Growth Of The Eurozone Essay
The Growth Of The Eurozone EssayThe Growth Of The Eurozone Essay
The Growth Of The Eurozone EssayLiza Schmid
 
Eurostat book smarter, greener, more inclusive indicators to support the eur...
Eurostat book  smarter, greener, more inclusive indicators to support the eur...Eurostat book  smarter, greener, more inclusive indicators to support the eur...
Eurostat book smarter, greener, more inclusive indicators to support the eur...Mario Verissimo
 
Dutch postwar economic performance compared to the u.s.
Dutch postwar economic performance compared to the u.s.Dutch postwar economic performance compared to the u.s.
Dutch postwar economic performance compared to the u.s.PeterMachielse
 
Economic integration, within- and between-country inequality in Europe
Economic integration, within- and between-country inequality in EuropeEconomic integration, within- and between-country inequality in Europe
Economic integration, within- and between-country inequality in EuropeEesti Pank
 
Economic Recovery Wach 14 January 2010
Economic Recovery Wach 14 January 2010 Economic Recovery Wach 14 January 2010
Economic Recovery Wach 14 January 2010 thinkingeurope2011
 
magazine-CoR-n90-final-version
magazine-CoR-n90-final-versionmagazine-CoR-n90-final-version
magazine-CoR-n90-final-versionJulia Rokicka
 
Progressive economy journal-issue8_v09_final-small_pbp
Progressive economy journal-issue8_v09_final-small_pbpProgressive economy journal-issue8_v09_final-small_pbp
Progressive economy journal-issue8_v09_final-small_pbpDaniel Dufourt
 
Berlin Seminar - European Young Leaders "40 Under 40"
Berlin Seminar - European Young Leaders "40 Under 40"Berlin Seminar - European Young Leaders "40 Under 40"
Berlin Seminar - European Young Leaders "40 Under 40"40under40
 
Dutch postwar economic performance compared to the u.s.
Dutch postwar economic performance compared to the u.s.Dutch postwar economic performance compared to the u.s.
Dutch postwar economic performance compared to the u.s.PeterMachielse
 
From growth paradigm to sustainable development paradigm
From growth paradigm to sustainable development paradigmFrom growth paradigm to sustainable development paradigm
From growth paradigm to sustainable development paradigmMarianne Kettunen
 
Characteristics of Inequalities in Europe: Context and Policies
Characteristics of Inequalities in Europe: Context and PoliciesCharacteristics of Inequalities in Europe: Context and Policies
Characteristics of Inequalities in Europe: Context and PoliciesUNICEF Algérie
 
Report EYL 40 under 40 Berlin 2012
Report EYL 40 under 40 Berlin 2012Report EYL 40 under 40 Berlin 2012
Report EYL 40 under 40 Berlin 2012Dimitris Tsingos
 
The accelerator and incubator ecosystem in Europe (2013)
The accelerator and incubator ecosystem in Europe (2013)The accelerator and incubator ecosystem in Europe (2013)
The accelerator and incubator ecosystem in Europe (2013)FrenchWeb.fr
 
The R&D projects funded by the European Union. The recent experience of Web-...
The R&D projects funded by the European Union.  The recent experience of Web-...The R&D projects funded by the European Union.  The recent experience of Web-...
The R&D projects funded by the European Union. The recent experience of Web-...Wikiprogress_slides
 

Similar a Inequality in europe (20)

The accelerator and_incubator_ecosystem_in_europe
The accelerator and_incubator_ecosystem_in_europeThe accelerator and_incubator_ecosystem_in_europe
The accelerator and_incubator_ecosystem_in_europe
 
The Growth Of The Eurozone Essay
The Growth Of The Eurozone EssayThe Growth Of The Eurozone Essay
The Growth Of The Eurozone Essay
 
CASE Network Studies and Analyses 308 - Perspectives for the Lisbon Strategy:...
CASE Network Studies and Analyses 308 - Perspectives for the Lisbon Strategy:...CASE Network Studies and Analyses 308 - Perspectives for the Lisbon Strategy:...
CASE Network Studies and Analyses 308 - Perspectives for the Lisbon Strategy:...
 
Eurostat book smarter, greener, more inclusive indicators to support the eur...
Eurostat book  smarter, greener, more inclusive indicators to support the eur...Eurostat book  smarter, greener, more inclusive indicators to support the eur...
Eurostat book smarter, greener, more inclusive indicators to support the eur...
 
Dutch postwar economic performance compared to the u.s.
Dutch postwar economic performance compared to the u.s.Dutch postwar economic performance compared to the u.s.
Dutch postwar economic performance compared to the u.s.
 
Adjacent Government - addition of Nov 2015
Adjacent Government - addition of Nov 2015Adjacent Government - addition of Nov 2015
Adjacent Government - addition of Nov 2015
 
Economic integration, within- and between-country inequality in Europe
Economic integration, within- and between-country inequality in EuropeEconomic integration, within- and between-country inequality in Europe
Economic integration, within- and between-country inequality in Europe
 
Economic Recovery Wach 14 January 2010
Economic Recovery Wach 14 January 2010 Economic Recovery Wach 14 January 2010
Economic Recovery Wach 14 January 2010
 
magazine-CoR-n90-final-version
magazine-CoR-n90-final-versionmagazine-CoR-n90-final-version
magazine-CoR-n90-final-version
 
Progressive economy journal-issue8_v09_final-small_pbp
Progressive economy journal-issue8_v09_final-small_pbpProgressive economy journal-issue8_v09_final-small_pbp
Progressive economy journal-issue8_v09_final-small_pbp
 
Berlin Seminar - European Young Leaders "40 Under 40"
Berlin Seminar - European Young Leaders "40 Under 40"Berlin Seminar - European Young Leaders "40 Under 40"
Berlin Seminar - European Young Leaders "40 Under 40"
 
Dutch postwar economic performance compared to the u.s.
Dutch postwar economic performance compared to the u.s.Dutch postwar economic performance compared to the u.s.
Dutch postwar economic performance compared to the u.s.
 
From growth paradigm to sustainable development paradigm
From growth paradigm to sustainable development paradigmFrom growth paradigm to sustainable development paradigm
From growth paradigm to sustainable development paradigm
 
Characteristics of Inequalities in Europe: Context and Policies
Characteristics of Inequalities in Europe: Context and PoliciesCharacteristics of Inequalities in Europe: Context and Policies
Characteristics of Inequalities in Europe: Context and Policies
 
Report EYL 40 under 40 Berlin 2012
Report EYL 40 under 40 Berlin 2012Report EYL 40 under 40 Berlin 2012
Report EYL 40 under 40 Berlin 2012
 
The accelerator and incubator ecosystem in Europe (2013)
The accelerator and incubator ecosystem in Europe (2013)The accelerator and incubator ecosystem in Europe (2013)
The accelerator and incubator ecosystem in Europe (2013)
 
Social europe guide en
Social europe guide enSocial europe guide en
Social europe guide en
 
The R&D projects funded by the European Union. The recent experience of Web-...
The R&D projects funded by the European Union.  The recent experience of Web-...The R&D projects funded by the European Union.  The recent experience of Web-...
The R&D projects funded by the European Union. The recent experience of Web-...
 
A Broken Social elevator? How to promote social mobility
A Broken Social elevator? How to promote social mobilityA Broken Social elevator? How to promote social mobility
A Broken Social elevator? How to promote social mobility
 
Wohlstandsreport Zentral- und Osteuropa
Wohlstandsreport Zentral- und OsteuropaWohlstandsreport Zentral- und Osteuropa
Wohlstandsreport Zentral- und Osteuropa
 

Más de FESD GKr

Freedom convoy austria 2022
Freedom convoy austria 2022Freedom convoy austria 2022
Freedom convoy austria 2022FESD GKr
 
Bedarfsorientierte Mindestsicherung
Bedarfsorientierte MindestsicherungBedarfsorientierte Mindestsicherung
Bedarfsorientierte MindestsicherungFESD GKr
 
Gold plaiting
Gold plaiting Gold plaiting
Gold plaiting FESD GKr
 
Was verbindet, was trennt ...
Was verbindet, was trennt ...Was verbindet, was trennt ...
Was verbindet, was trennt ...FESD GKr
 
Kinder haben Rechte
Kinder haben RechteKinder haben Rechte
Kinder haben RechteFESD GKr
 
Nur menschengerecht gestaltete Arbeit ist gute Arbeit !
Nur menschengerecht gestaltete Arbeit ist gute Arbeit !Nur menschengerecht gestaltete Arbeit ist gute Arbeit !
Nur menschengerecht gestaltete Arbeit ist gute Arbeit !FESD GKr
 
Daten & Fakten zu nachwachsenden Rohstoffen
Daten & Fakten zu nachwachsenden RohstoffenDaten & Fakten zu nachwachsenden Rohstoffen
Daten & Fakten zu nachwachsenden RohstoffenFESD GKr
 
Epicenter works Stellungnahme_Stg-novelle_2017_294_final
Epicenter works Stellungnahme_Stg-novelle_2017_294_finalEpicenter works Stellungnahme_Stg-novelle_2017_294_final
Epicenter works Stellungnahme_Stg-novelle_2017_294_finalFESD GKr
 
Gemeinwohlökonomie
GemeinwohlökonomieGemeinwohlökonomie
GemeinwohlökonomieFESD GKr
 
Demokratie neu starten
Demokratie neu startenDemokratie neu starten
Demokratie neu startenFESD GKr
 
Schattendorf 1927; Demokratie am Wendepunkt
Schattendorf 1927;  Demokratie am WendepunktSchattendorf 1927;  Demokratie am Wendepunkt
Schattendorf 1927; Demokratie am WendepunktFESD GKr
 
Broschuere Patientenrechte Psychiatrie_2013_web
Broschuere Patientenrechte Psychiatrie_2013_webBroschuere Patientenrechte Psychiatrie_2013_web
Broschuere Patientenrechte Psychiatrie_2013_webFESD GKr
 
BERICHT INTERNET-SICHERHEIT - Cert.at jahresbericht-2016
BERICHT INTERNET-SICHERHEIT - Cert.at jahresbericht-2016BERICHT INTERNET-SICHERHEIT - Cert.at jahresbericht-2016
BERICHT INTERNET-SICHERHEIT - Cert.at jahresbericht-2016FESD GKr
 
A social and democratic Europe?
A social and democratic Europe?A social and democratic Europe?
A social and democratic Europe?FESD GKr
 
AK Einladung net_0118_Steuervermeidung_k1
AK Einladung net_0118_Steuervermeidung_k1AK Einladung net_0118_Steuervermeidung_k1
AK Einladung net_0118_Steuervermeidung_k1FESD GKr
 
Jahoda-Bauer - Perspektiven Gesamtwerk-2016-web
Jahoda-Bauer - Perspektiven Gesamtwerk-2016-webJahoda-Bauer - Perspektiven Gesamtwerk-2016-web
Jahoda-Bauer - Perspektiven Gesamtwerk-2016-webFESD GKr
 
Kontrovers 01 09_Finanzkrise2009
Kontrovers 01 09_Finanzkrise2009Kontrovers 01 09_Finanzkrise2009
Kontrovers 01 09_Finanzkrise2009FESD GKr
 
Neoliberalismus der Demokraten - Er brachte Trump den Sieg
Neoliberalismus der Demokraten - Er brachte Trump den SiegNeoliberalismus der Demokraten - Er brachte Trump den Sieg
Neoliberalismus der Demokraten - Er brachte Trump den SiegFESD GKr
 
Kinder haben Rechte
Kinder haben RechteKinder haben Rechte
Kinder haben RechteFESD GKr
 
Gespaltene Mitte - Feindselige Zustände
Gespaltene Mitte - Feindselige ZuständeGespaltene Mitte - Feindselige Zustände
Gespaltene Mitte - Feindselige ZuständeFESD GKr
 

Más de FESD GKr (20)

Freedom convoy austria 2022
Freedom convoy austria 2022Freedom convoy austria 2022
Freedom convoy austria 2022
 
Bedarfsorientierte Mindestsicherung
Bedarfsorientierte MindestsicherungBedarfsorientierte Mindestsicherung
Bedarfsorientierte Mindestsicherung
 
Gold plaiting
Gold plaiting Gold plaiting
Gold plaiting
 
Was verbindet, was trennt ...
Was verbindet, was trennt ...Was verbindet, was trennt ...
Was verbindet, was trennt ...
 
Kinder haben Rechte
Kinder haben RechteKinder haben Rechte
Kinder haben Rechte
 
Nur menschengerecht gestaltete Arbeit ist gute Arbeit !
Nur menschengerecht gestaltete Arbeit ist gute Arbeit !Nur menschengerecht gestaltete Arbeit ist gute Arbeit !
Nur menschengerecht gestaltete Arbeit ist gute Arbeit !
 
Daten & Fakten zu nachwachsenden Rohstoffen
Daten & Fakten zu nachwachsenden RohstoffenDaten & Fakten zu nachwachsenden Rohstoffen
Daten & Fakten zu nachwachsenden Rohstoffen
 
Epicenter works Stellungnahme_Stg-novelle_2017_294_final
Epicenter works Stellungnahme_Stg-novelle_2017_294_finalEpicenter works Stellungnahme_Stg-novelle_2017_294_final
Epicenter works Stellungnahme_Stg-novelle_2017_294_final
 
Gemeinwohlökonomie
GemeinwohlökonomieGemeinwohlökonomie
Gemeinwohlökonomie
 
Demokratie neu starten
Demokratie neu startenDemokratie neu starten
Demokratie neu starten
 
Schattendorf 1927; Demokratie am Wendepunkt
Schattendorf 1927;  Demokratie am WendepunktSchattendorf 1927;  Demokratie am Wendepunkt
Schattendorf 1927; Demokratie am Wendepunkt
 
Broschuere Patientenrechte Psychiatrie_2013_web
Broschuere Patientenrechte Psychiatrie_2013_webBroschuere Patientenrechte Psychiatrie_2013_web
Broschuere Patientenrechte Psychiatrie_2013_web
 
BERICHT INTERNET-SICHERHEIT - Cert.at jahresbericht-2016
BERICHT INTERNET-SICHERHEIT - Cert.at jahresbericht-2016BERICHT INTERNET-SICHERHEIT - Cert.at jahresbericht-2016
BERICHT INTERNET-SICHERHEIT - Cert.at jahresbericht-2016
 
A social and democratic Europe?
A social and democratic Europe?A social and democratic Europe?
A social and democratic Europe?
 
AK Einladung net_0118_Steuervermeidung_k1
AK Einladung net_0118_Steuervermeidung_k1AK Einladung net_0118_Steuervermeidung_k1
AK Einladung net_0118_Steuervermeidung_k1
 
Jahoda-Bauer - Perspektiven Gesamtwerk-2016-web
Jahoda-Bauer - Perspektiven Gesamtwerk-2016-webJahoda-Bauer - Perspektiven Gesamtwerk-2016-web
Jahoda-Bauer - Perspektiven Gesamtwerk-2016-web
 
Kontrovers 01 09_Finanzkrise2009
Kontrovers 01 09_Finanzkrise2009Kontrovers 01 09_Finanzkrise2009
Kontrovers 01 09_Finanzkrise2009
 
Neoliberalismus der Demokraten - Er brachte Trump den Sieg
Neoliberalismus der Demokraten - Er brachte Trump den SiegNeoliberalismus der Demokraten - Er brachte Trump den Sieg
Neoliberalismus der Demokraten - Er brachte Trump den Sieg
 
Kinder haben Rechte
Kinder haben RechteKinder haben Rechte
Kinder haben Rechte
 
Gespaltene Mitte - Feindselige Zustände
Gespaltene Mitte - Feindselige ZuständeGespaltene Mitte - Feindselige Zustände
Gespaltene Mitte - Feindselige Zustände
 

Último

19032024_First India Newspaper Jaipur.pdf
19032024_First India Newspaper Jaipur.pdf19032024_First India Newspaper Jaipur.pdf
19032024_First India Newspaper Jaipur.pdfFIRST INDIA
 
Another Day, Another Default Judgment Against Gabe Whitley
Another Day, Another Default Judgment Against Gabe WhitleyAnother Day, Another Default Judgment Against Gabe Whitley
Another Day, Another Default Judgment Against Gabe WhitleyAbdul-Hakim Shabazz
 
Por estos dos motivos, defensa de JOH solicita repetir juicio
Por estos dos motivos, defensa de JOH solicita repetir juicioPor estos dos motivos, defensa de JOH solicita repetir juicio
Por estos dos motivos, defensa de JOH solicita repetir juicioAlexisTorres963861
 
One India vs United India by Dream Tamilnadu
One India vs United India by Dream TamilnaduOne India vs United India by Dream Tamilnadu
One India vs United India by Dream TamilnaduDreamTamilnadu
 
Européennes 2024 : projection du Parlement européen à trois mois du scrutin
Européennes 2024 : projection du Parlement européen à trois mois du scrutinEuropéennes 2024 : projection du Parlement européen à trois mois du scrutin
Européennes 2024 : projection du Parlement européen à trois mois du scrutinIpsos France
 
Ministry of Justice Extradition Eswatini 3.pdf
Ministry of Justice Extradition Eswatini 3.pdfMinistry of Justice Extradition Eswatini 3.pdf
Ministry of Justice Extradition Eswatini 3.pdfSABC News
 
Anantkumar Hegde
Anantkumar Hegde  Anantkumar Hegde
Anantkumar Hegde NewsFeed1
 
Light Rail in Canberra: Too much, too little, too late: Is the price worth th...
Light Rail in Canberra: Too much, too little, too late: Is the price worth th...Light Rail in Canberra: Too much, too little, too late: Is the price worth th...
Light Rail in Canberra: Too much, too little, too late: Is the price worth th...University of Canberra
 
Green Aesthetic Ripped Paper Thesis Defense Presentation_20240311_111012_0000...
Green Aesthetic Ripped Paper Thesis Defense Presentation_20240311_111012_0000...Green Aesthetic Ripped Paper Thesis Defense Presentation_20240311_111012_0000...
Green Aesthetic Ripped Paper Thesis Defense Presentation_20240311_111012_0000...virgfern3011
 

Último (9)

19032024_First India Newspaper Jaipur.pdf
19032024_First India Newspaper Jaipur.pdf19032024_First India Newspaper Jaipur.pdf
19032024_First India Newspaper Jaipur.pdf
 
Another Day, Another Default Judgment Against Gabe Whitley
Another Day, Another Default Judgment Against Gabe WhitleyAnother Day, Another Default Judgment Against Gabe Whitley
Another Day, Another Default Judgment Against Gabe Whitley
 
Por estos dos motivos, defensa de JOH solicita repetir juicio
Por estos dos motivos, defensa de JOH solicita repetir juicioPor estos dos motivos, defensa de JOH solicita repetir juicio
Por estos dos motivos, defensa de JOH solicita repetir juicio
 
One India vs United India by Dream Tamilnadu
One India vs United India by Dream TamilnaduOne India vs United India by Dream Tamilnadu
One India vs United India by Dream Tamilnadu
 
Européennes 2024 : projection du Parlement européen à trois mois du scrutin
Européennes 2024 : projection du Parlement européen à trois mois du scrutinEuropéennes 2024 : projection du Parlement européen à trois mois du scrutin
Européennes 2024 : projection du Parlement européen à trois mois du scrutin
 
Ministry of Justice Extradition Eswatini 3.pdf
Ministry of Justice Extradition Eswatini 3.pdfMinistry of Justice Extradition Eswatini 3.pdf
Ministry of Justice Extradition Eswatini 3.pdf
 
Anantkumar Hegde
Anantkumar Hegde  Anantkumar Hegde
Anantkumar Hegde
 
Light Rail in Canberra: Too much, too little, too late: Is the price worth th...
Light Rail in Canberra: Too much, too little, too late: Is the price worth th...Light Rail in Canberra: Too much, too little, too late: Is the price worth th...
Light Rail in Canberra: Too much, too little, too late: Is the price worth th...
 
Green Aesthetic Ripped Paper Thesis Defense Presentation_20240311_111012_0000...
Green Aesthetic Ripped Paper Thesis Defense Presentation_20240311_111012_0000...Green Aesthetic Ripped Paper Thesis Defense Presentation_20240311_111012_0000...
Green Aesthetic Ripped Paper Thesis Defense Presentation_20240311_111012_0000...
 

Inequality in europe

  • 1. Michael Dauderstädt and Cem Keltek Inequality in Europe Relatively Stable, Absolutely Alarming
  • 2. www.fes.de/de/politik-fuer-europa-2017plus/ Impressum: © 2016 Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Herausgeber: Abteilung Internationaler Dialog Internationale Politikanalyse Hiroshimastraße 28, 10785 Berlin www.fes.de/ipa Bestellungen/Kontakt: info.ipa@fes.de Die in dieser Publikation zum Ausdruck gebrachten Ansichten sind nicht notwendigerweise die der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Eine gewerbliche Nutzung der von der FES herausgegebenen Medien ist ohne schriftliche Zustimmung durch die FES nicht gestattet. ISBN: 978-3-95861-391-1 Titelmotiv: © shutterstock / xalex, just in print Gestaltung: www.stetzer.net Druck: www.druckerei-brandt.de Januar 2016 FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG EIN PROJEKT DER FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG IN DEN JAHREN 2015 BIS 2017 Europe needs social democracy! Why do we really want Europe? Can we demonstrate to European citizens the opportunities offered by social politics and a strong social democracy in Europe? This is the aim of the new Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung project »Politics for Europe«. It shows that European integration can be done in a democratic, economic and socially balanced way and with a reliable foreign policy. The following issues will be particularly important: – Democratic Europe – Economic and social policy in Europe – Foreign and security policy in Europe The FES will devote itself to these issues in publications and events throughout 2015–2017: we start from citizens’ concerns, identify new positions with decision-makers and lay out alternative policy approaches. We want a debate with you about »Politics for Europe«! Further information on the project can be found here: http://www.fes.de/de/politik-fuer-europa-2017plus/ Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung The Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (FES) is the oldest political foundation in Germany with a rich tradition dating back to its foundation in 1925. Today, it remains loyal to the legacy of its namesake and campaigns for the core ideas and values of social democracy: freedom, justice and solidarity. It has a close connection to social democracy and free trade unions. FES promotes the advancement of social democracy, in particular by: – Political educational work to strengthen civil society – Think Tanks – International cooperation with our international network of offices in more than 100 countries – Support for talented young people – Maintaining the collective memory of social democracy with archives, libraries and more. About the authors: Dr Michael Dauderstädt is managing director of Dietz-Verlag and up to 2013 was director of the division for Economic and Social Policy of the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Cem Keltek is an economist and former recipient of a Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung scholarship. Responsible for this publication in the FES Dr. Michael Bröning, Head of Department International Policy Analysis Editor: Dominika Biegon, policy analyst for European Politics, Co-Editor: Sabine Dörfler
  • 3. INEQUALITY IN EUROPE 1 CONTENTS 2 At a Glance 3 Multi-level Inequality in Europe 3 Alarming Absolute Inequality
  • 4. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 2 AT A GLANCE Income inequality in the European Union (EU) has barely changed for a number of years. Neither im- provements like those before 2009 nor a substan- tial worsening have been observed. However, this applies only to relative inequality, which indica- tes the income of richer people, regions and coun- tries as a multiple of that of poorer ones. If one looks at the absolute differences between the hig- hest and the lowest incomes, however, an alarming increase in inequality is to be observed in Europe. Viewed superficially, income inequality appears to be a simple concept. It covers a wide range, from low to high via middle incomes. But how is inequality measured? In economic sta- tistics and theory a number of measures are used, such as the Gini coefficient,1 standard deviation or the quintile ratio S80/S20.2 Also informative is the ratio or distance between 1 The Gini coefficient varies between 0 and 1 (or as a percentage between 0 and 100), with 0 signifying absolutely equal distribution of incomes and I (or 100) a case in which all income goes to one person. 2 The quintile ratio is the ratio between the incomes of the richest and the poorest fifths (= quintile) of the total group. the highest and lowest incomes. If these indicators fall, one talks about convergence, otherwise of divergence. Economics differentiates here between sigma convergence, when in- come dispersion diminishes, and beta convergence, when lower incomes grow more rapidly than higher incomes.3 And what is meant by »income«? With regard to coun- tries it is usually per capita GDP. In relation to households two forms are differentiated: market income and disposable in- come, the latter is derived from the former by subtracting ta- xes and including transfer payments, such as pensions. Here we look at disposable income on the basis of EU-SILC4 data from the Statistical Office of the European Union (Eurostat). 3 Cf. Dauderstädt, Michael 2016: Konvergenz und Divergenz in der Europäischen Union [Convergence and divergence in the Euro-pean Union], in: ifo Schnelldienst 69 (17), pp. 12–15, http://www.dauderstaedt.de/pdf/ sd.2016-17-text-dauderstaedt.pdf (22.02.17) and Dauderstädt, Michael 2014: Convergence in the crisis: European integration in jeopardy, Interna- tional Policy Analysis, Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, Berlin, http://library.fes.de/ pdf-files/id/ipa/11001.pdf (5.04.17) or Goecke, Henry 2013: Europa driftet auseinander – Ist dies das Ende der realwirtschaftlichen Konvergenz? [Europe drifting apart: is this the end of real economic convergence?], in: IW-Trends – Vierteljahresschrift zur empirischen Wirtschaftsforschung 40 (4), Institut der deutschen Wirtschaft Köln, pp. 1–15, https://www.iwkoeln.de/studien/iw- trends/beitrag/henry-goecke-europa-driftet-auseinander-138522 (22.02.17). 4 EU-SILC = EU Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (based on household surveys). Table 1 The poorest (red) and richest (grey) quintiles in the EU, 2014 (in euros and PPS) 2015 Euro PPS Member state Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Bulgaria 1.256 2.388 3.350 4.557 8.902 2.595 4.933 6.921 9.414 18.388 Romania 685 1.563 2.310 3.134 5.674 1.289 2.941 4.347 5.898 10.679 Latvia 2.243 4.081 5.828 8.110 14.579 3.114 5.665 8.092 11.259 20.241 Lithuania 2.005 3.625 5.186 7.451 14.395 3.194 5.774 8.260 11.867 22.929 Poland 2.512 4.217 5.562 7.220 12.366 4.499 7.552 9.961 12.930 22.147 Estonia 3.169 5.580 7.947 11.089 19.663 4.190 7.380 10.509 14.664 26.002 Hungary 2.220 3.571 4.586 5.915 9.530 3.858 6.207 7.971 10.281 16.563 Slovakia 3.419 5.623 6.900 8.430 12.088 5.042 8.293 10.175 12.433 17.827 Czech Republic 4.214 6.123 7.424 9.185 14.777 6.615 9.612 11.654 14.419 23.196 Portugal 3.436 6.232 8.416 11.234 20.656 4.203 7.623 10.294 13.740 25.263 Greece 2.714 5.443 7.515 10.103 17.626 3.177 6.371 8.796 11.826 20.631 Malta 6.768 10.166 13.485 17.321 28.082 8.367 12.568 16.671 21.414 34.718 Spain 4.549 9.499 13.360 18.375 31.255 4.928 10.290 14.472 19.906 33.858 Slovenia 6.280 9.831 12.321 15.060 22.553 7.691 12.040 15.090 18.444 27.620 Italy 5.996 11.593 15.884 20.959 35.014 5.825 11.263 15.431 20.362 34.016 Cyprus 6.780 10.281 13.827 18.563 35.251 7.527 11.414 15.350 20.609 39.136 Germany 9.339 15.845 20.723 26.782 44.788 9.202 15.613 20.420 26.390 44.131 France 11.219 16.924 21.471 27.179 48.094 10.417 15.715 19.937 25.237 44.657 Belgium 10.891 16.621 21.753 27.484 41.578 10.019 15.291 20.012 25.284 38.250 United Kingdom 9.540 15.808 21.043 28.373 49.901 8.068 13.368 17.795 23.993 42.199 Austria 11.649 18.413 23.340 29.250 47.099 10.909 17.244 21.858 27.393 44.109 Finland 12.920 18.868 23.766 29.711 45.929 10.564 15.427 19.432 24.293 37.553 Netherlands 11.346 16.957 21.346 26.600 43.367 10.331 15.440 19.436 24.220 39.487 Sweden 12.974 20.904 26.651 33.104 48.790 10.332 16.648 21.224 26.364 38.856 Ireland 10.528 16.159 21.617 28.475 47.391 5.737 8.804 11.778 15.515 25.822 Denmark 14.056 22.553 28.388 35.248 57.340 10.101 16.208 20.402 25.332 41.209 Luxembourg 17.385 26.925 35.081 45.258 73.832 14.435 22.356 29.128 37.579 61.304 Notes: The light shaded quintiles only go proportionately into the corresponding EU quintile; Croatia, which acceded to the EU in 2013, was not included in order to maintain comparability with previous years. Source: Eurostat and authors‘ calculations.
  • 5. INEQUALITY IN EUROPE 3 MULTI-LEVEL INEQUALITY IN EUROPE For an economy consisting of 28 countries, like that of the EU, inequality is even more complex. One has to exa- mine the distribution on two levels, within and between countries, as well as its development. To that end, for ten years now we have been using a method that allows us to capture both levels at once. The analysis presented here uses the latest data for 2015. We refer to the aver- age incomes of all quintiles provided by Eurostat (in other words, for each fifth of the inhabitants) of all 28 mem- ber states (see Table 1). On that basis we constructed the EU quintile (with around 100 million people) and thus are able to calculate the quintile ratio S80/S20 for the whole EU (the red and green areas in Table 1). Because inco- mes by international comparison have different purcha- sing power due to the differential development of price levels and exchange rates we refer to the values in eu- ros at exchange rates (left hand side of the table) and also in terms of purchasing power standards (PPS; right hand side of the table). Inequality is lower measured in PPS because purchasing power is higher in poorer countries. The development of European inequality is the re- sult of changes in income distribution at both levels. And inequality between member states is higher than ine- quality within them. Compared at exchange rates the average per capita income of the richest countries, for example, is ten times as high as in the poorest. Within member states inequality has increased in most coun- tries in recent years, although not particularly shar- ply, on average. Developments between 2014 and 2015, however, scarcely indicate any change: on aver- age in the EU the S80/S20 ratio remained at 5.2, ac- cording to Eurostat (see Figure 1, lowest line). Behind this, however, national developments diverged. For ex- ample, in Lithuania the S80/S20 ratio rose from 6.1 to 7.5 (the sharpest increase in the EU) and in Romania from 7.2 to 8.3 (the highest value in the EU), while in Germany – probably due to the introduction of the mi- nimum wage – it fell from 5.1 in 2014 to 4.8 in 2015.5 Generally speaking, however, the larger changes are to be observed in income distribution between member states. For a long time incomes in the poo- rer member states of central and eastern Europe have been growing much more strongly than in- comes in the richer northwest of the EU, not to mention the southern periphery (Greece, Spain, Portugal, Italy), whose incomes lie somewhere in the middle in the EU and have fallen or stagnated. If one estimates inequality in the EU as a whole by calculating the EU-wide S80/S20 ratio using the method described above a value of around 6.5 in PPS and 9.5 in euros at exchange rates is genera- ted for 2015 (see Figure 1). These figures are much higher than Eurostat’s 5.2, which neglects the dif- ferences between countries. Stagnation is to be ob- served in development between 2014 and 2015, too, as has already been the case since 2011. 5 All figures from the Eurostat EU-SILC survey [ilc_di11]. ALARMING ABSOLUTE INEQUALITY The fact that European inequality fell only up to 2009 and has now remained stubbornly at the same level for years is certainly no occasion for celebration. However, this pic- ture of falling (up to 2009) and then stagnating (since 2011) inequality is also due to the selected indicator, the quintile ratio S80/S20, which measures relative inequality. It has already been pointed out with regard to global in­ equality, which is also a multi-level phenomenon, that the focus on relative inequality, which has also fallen slightly on a global scale, conceals rising absolute inequality.6 If one chooses a measure that illustrates the absolute gaps between incomes as indicator, the development of in- equality in Europe appears much more alarming. Thus the standard deviation over all 135 (5 x 27) quintiles has increa- sed constantly since 2009 (cf. Figure 2). Only in 2015 could a slight improvement be observed in a measurement in PPS. 6 Cf. Nino-Zarazua, Miguel et al. 2016: Global Inequality: Relatively Lower, Absolutely Higher, in: Review of Income and Wealth, DOI: 10.1111/ roiw.12240, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/roiw.12240/full (22.02.17) Figure 1 Development of income inequality in the EU (S80/S20 income ratios) Note: PPS = purchasing power standards; to maintain comparability we had to leave out Croatia. Source: Eurostat; authors‘ calculations. EU-25 Euro EU-25 PPS EU-27 Euro EU-27 PPS EU-27 Eurostat Figure 2 Development of income inequality in the EU (standard deviation in euros and PPS) Source: Eurostat; authors‘ calculations. Euro PPS
  • 6. FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG 4 This discrepancy between relative and absolute in­- equality conceals the dismal mathematical logic of am­ bivalent convergence of initially very different incomes. The following example serves as an illustration: at the beginning (for example, on EU accession) the per capita income of the poorer country is a fifth of that of the ri- cher country (in the EU often even less). Subsequently, it grows – a rather optimistic long-term prognosis – by 5 per cent a year, while the GDP of the richer country in- creases by only 2 per cent (beta convergence). Then the absolute gap between the two countries still grows for 25 years , only after 56 years is income equality achie- ved (see Figure 3). The standard deviation also increases for 25 years before falling again (sigma convergence).7 An even more dramatic picture of absolute inequality emerges if one compares the average per capita income of the richest and poorest national quintiles in Europe. As is evident in Table 1, the richest national quintile in Europe is that of Luxembourg (Q5) with an annual income of 73,832 euros (at exchange rates) and 61,304 euros at PPS. The poo- rest quintile is that of Romania (Q1) with an annual income of only 685 euros or 1,289 euros in PPS (see Table 1). The 7 For the basis of calculation see the mathematical annex in figure 3. ratio is more than 1:100 at exchange rates and 1:47 in PPS. The absolute gap stands at 73,147 euros (exchange rates) and 60,015 euros (PPS). Furthermore, these indicators of extreme inequality have deteriorated further since 2009. If one compares incomes at exchange rates, people in the poorest EU countries (above all Bulgaria and Romania) who belong to the richest 20 per cent there, are among the poorest in the richest EU countries (Denmark and Luxembourg). To put it another way, a person’s living stan- dards in the EU depend more on the country they are born and grow up in than on whether they belong to the re- levant upper or lower stratum of their national society. One might ask what these income differentials mean. Probably their most important consequence is the high emigration from the poorer EU member states to the richer ones. But while this migration contributes to income conver- gence, countries such as Romania, Lithuania and Latvia have lost around 10 per cent of their populations. In the recei- ving countries immigration has bolstered nationalist-populist tendencies, for example, in England and Wales, where the imagined possibility of restricting immigration was one of the main reasons for the Brexit vote. However, the figures on inequality and its dynamics show that there is little prospect of reducing absolute inequality in the foreseeable future. Figure 3 Difficult catch-up processes (in per cent and period in years ) Mathematical Annex to Figure 3 At=A0*Ga t , where At is the income of poorer people at timepoint t, A0 initial income (t=0) and Ga the growth factor. The growth factor is G=1+g (g is the growth rate). If, then, the growth rate is 2 per cent, the growth factor is 1.02. Rt=R0*Gr t , where Rt is the income of richer people at timepoint t, R0 initial income (t=0) and Gr the growth factor. The year of catching up is timepoint t, with regard to which At=Rt, is true and so: A0*Ga t =R0*Gr t Solving this equation for t, we get: Tparity=ln(R0    /A0)  /  ln(Ga   /Gr). The timepoint of the biggest gap, after which the gap starts to diminish, is timepoint Tmax, at which the gap Dt=Rt – At reaches its maximum. It is calculated using the following derivation: d/dt Dt=d/dt (R0*Gr t  – A0*Ga t ) = R0*lnGr*Gr t  – A0*lnGa*Ga t  =  0. Tmax   =  ln(R0*lnGr    /A0*lnGa)  /   ln(Ga     /Gr). GDP poor GDP rich absolute gap ratio Source: authors‘ calculations; see Mathematical Annex.
  • 7. www.fes.de/de/politik-fuer-europa-2017plus/ Impressum: © 2016 Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Herausgeber: Abteilung Internationaler Dialog Internationale Politikanalyse Hiroshimastraße 28, 10785 Berlin www.fes.de/ipa Bestellungen/Kontakt: info.ipa@fes.de Die in dieser Publikation zum Ausdruck gebrachten Ansichten sind nicht notwendigerweise die der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Eine gewerbliche Nutzung der von der FES herausgegebenen Medien ist ohne schriftliche Zustimmung durch die FES nicht gestattet. ISBN: 978-3-95861-391-1 Titelmotiv: © shutterstock / xalex, just in print Gestaltung: www.stetzer.net Druck: www.druckerei-brandt.de Januar 2016 Imprint © 2017 Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Publisher: International Policy Analysis, Hiroshimastraße 28, D-10785 Berlin, Germany www.fes.de/ipa Orders / Contact: info.ipa@fes.de The statements and conclusions are the sole responsibility of the author and do not represent an official opinion of the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Commercial use of all media published by the Friedrich- Ebert-Stiftung (FES) is not permitted without the written consent of the FES. ISBN: 978-3-95861-802-2 Front cover illustration: M. Jeremy Goldman (flickr, CC BY-NC 2.0) Design concept: www.stetzer.net Realisation / Typesetting: pertext, Berlin Print: www.druckerei-brandt.de April 2017