Have a look if on wish to improve reading skills....=)

1. Toward
an
Interactive
–
Compensatory
Model
of
Reading
Fluency
The
Interactive
Compensatory
Model
The
University
of
Toronto’s
Keith
Stanovich,
Professor
of
Human
Development
and
Applied
Psychology
is
an
education
researcher
whose
primary
field
of
inquiry
is
understanding
the
processes
through
which
we
learn
and
understand
text.
His
investigation
of
reading
and
fluency
began
with
his
review
of
Frank
Smith’s
1971
book,
Understanding
Reading.
He
posited
that
reading
fluency
is
measurable,
quantifiable
and
can
be
predicted
and
explained.
Stanovich
reviewed
the
research
surrounding
reading
fluency
and
discovered
gaps
in
the
scholarship.
His
later
work
more
clearly
explained
the
process
through
which
readers
arrive
at
fluency.
Stanovich’s
seminal
research
into
language,
learning
and
reading
fluency
has
proven
its
staying
power.
He
examined
the
cognitive
processes
underpinning
reading
fluency.
In
the
article
Toward
an
Interactive
–
Compensatory
Model
of
Individual
Differences
in
the
Development
of
Reading
Fluency,
Stanovich
and
his
colleagues,
LaBerge
and
Samuels,
agree
that
the
mind
cannot
focus
on
two
demanding
cognitive
processes
like
decoding
and
comprehending
at
the
same
time;
therefore,
the
reader
has
to
have
mastered
the
decoding
skill
in
order
for
comprehension
to
be
successful.
Stanovich’s
Interactive
Compensatory
Model
claims
poor
readers
rely
on
other
reading
cognitions
to
help
them
interpret
orthographic
and
lexical
knowledge.
The
model’s
interactive
portion
indicates
the
reader
is
simultaneously
engaging
the
lower
and
higher
cognitive
processes
to
make
sense
of
text.
These
lower
(smaller
units
of
information
including
letters
and
words)
and
higher
(predictive
reading,
word
identification)
cognitive
processes
aid
the
reader
with
predicting
meaning
and
identifying
words.
Stanovich
defines
reading
fluency
as
the
efficient,
effective
use
of
word
recognition
skills
permitting
a
reader
to
construct
a
text’s
meaning.
Fluency
is
manifested
in
accurate,
rapid,
expressive
oral
reading
applied
while
reading
aloud
and
making
comprehension
possible.
Reading
aloud
allowed
for
the
transmission
of
important
information
in
and
among
social
groups.
The
recitation,
memorization
and
regurgitation
of
knowledge
were,
for
many
years,
a
bedrock
principle
of
American
education.
Compulsory
education
is
a
recent
phenomenon.
Instruction
focused
on
elocution
and
correct
pronunciation.
Stanovich
asserts
that
differences
in
reading
fluency
not
only
distinguish
good
readers
from
poor,
but
a
lack
of
reading
fluency
is
also
a
reliable
predictor
of
reading
comprehension
problems.
Torgesen
further
argues
once
struggling
readers
learn
sound–symbol
relationships
through
intervention
and
become
accurate
decoders,
their
lack
of
fluency
emerges
as
the
next
hurdle
they
face
on
their
way
to
reading
proficiency
Additionally,
Stanovich
argues
that
being
able
to
quickly
and
accurately
decode
words
influences
a
reader’s
ability
to
read
with
fluency.
If
a
reader
is
taking
too
much
time
decoding

2. and
heavily
relying
upon
contextual
clues
to
“figure
out”
words
and
word
meaning,
comprehension
begins
to
break
down
or
the
reader
never
achieves
understanding
of
text.
Ehri
(1995,
1998)
posited
that
readers
progress
in
stages
to
achieve
fluency,
in
line
with
a
“deep,”
developmental
concept
of
fluency.
The
development
occurs
in
four
stages:
• Pre-­‐Alphabetic
Stage
Readers
have
no
appreciation
of
the
alphabetic
principle
–
the
idea
that,
in
languages
like
English,
there
is
a
systematic
relationship
between
the
limited
number
of
sounds
in
the
language
and
the
language’s
letters
• Partial
Alphabetic
Stage
Readers
have
learned
that
letters
and
sounds
are
related
and
begin
to
use
that
insight
• Fully
Alphabetic
Stage
Readers
think
about
letter
sounds
and
blend
them
together
to
arrive
at
pronunciations
(sight
words)
• Consolidated
Alphabetic
Stage
Readers
recognize
whole
words
instantly
Fawcett
and
Nicholson
speculate
that
the
eye’s
inability
to
see
a
word
or
a
few
words
in
a
single
eye
fixation
helps
explain
automaticity
deficits.
Struggling
readers
and
students
with
dyslexia
often
have
to
re-­‐read
a
word
or
passage
to
self-­‐correct
insertions
and
omissions.
In
contrast,
fluent
readers’
placement
and
overlap
of
eye
fixations
are
more
efficient
than
less
skilled
readers,
and
fluent
readers
make
shorter
fixations,
longer
jumps
between
fixations
and
fewer
regressions
(Hudson
F.,
Lane
H.,
Pullen
P,
2005).
Furthermore
Hudson,
Lane,
and
Pullen
assert
that
if
a
reader
fails
to
read
words
accurately
the
reader
loses
the
author’s
intended
message.
The
ability
to
decode
words
quickly
and
accurately
is
important
to
achieve
fluency
and
comprehension.
The
article
goes
on
to
discuss
readers’
reading
rate
and
prosody.
Readers
move
through
connected
text
with
fluidity
and
at
a
fairly
decent
speed,
with
proficiency.
Educators
measure
reading
rate
either
by
counting
the
number
of
words
read
correctly
or
the
length
of
time
it
takes
for
the
reader
to
read
the
passage.
A
slow
reading
rate
can
result
in
weakened
comprehension.
On
the
other
hand,
research
has
shown
a
correlation
between
reading
rate
and
comprehension.
Students
who
read
at
a
decent
rate
comprehend
text
better.
The
objective
is
not
just
to
read
fast
but
read
with
accuracy
and
expression.
Reading
with
prosody
is
another
component
to
fluency
and
comprehension.
Prosody
refers
to
reading
rhythm
and
tone
of
speech—the
music
of
oral
language.
Prosody
has
various
pitches
(intonation),
stress
patterns
(syllable
prominence)
and
duration
(length
of
time)
that
contribute
to
expressive
reading
of
text
(Hudson
R.,
Lane
H,
and
Pullen
P.,
2005).
Reading
with
expression
involves
signaling
questions,
surprises,
exclamations
and
meanings
beyond
semantics.
Reading
with
expression
also
aids
in
keeping
the
reader
engaged
in
the
reading.
There
is
no
evidence
that
reading
with
prosody
(expression)
helps
with
comprehension
as
reading
rate
does.

3. The
article
also
asserts
that
regular
assessment
is
necessary
for
readers
to
improve
reading
expression
and
reading
rate.
Teachers
should
listen
to
students
read
aloud
to
judge
their
progress
in
reading
fluency.
Assessment
should
be
systematic
and
consider
word
reading
accuracy,
rate
and
prosody.
Reading
accuracy
should
also
be
assessed
and
can
be
accomplished
by
listening
to
reading
and
counting
errors
per
100
words,
for
example.
A
running
record
is
also
helpful
in
assessing
accuracy.
A
careful
examination
of
error
patterns
can
determine
which
strategies
a
reader
is
failing
to
use
and
could
be
useful
for
comprehending
passage.
To
further
explain
this
concept,
Stanovich
believes
struggling
readers
depend
upon
context
clues
to
decode
unfamiliar
words
and
to
“figure
out”
word
meaning.
This
strategy
slows
down
the
reading
process
(the
ability
to
read
words
automatically)
leaving
limited
cognitive
space
for
comprehension.
“The
conscious-­‐expectancy
process
uses
attention
capacity
and
thus
leaves
fewer
cognitive
resources
left
over
for
comprehension
(Stanovich
1980).
”
Moreover,
while
good
readers
have
superior
strategies
for
comprehending
and
remembering
large
units
of
text,
poor
readers
lack
similarly
sophisticated
comprehension
strategies.
Though
Stanovich
doesn’t
explicitly
call
out
these
superior
strategies
he
infers
their
importance
in
helping
poor
readers
become
better,
more
fluent
readers.
Some
of
the
strategies
under
discussion
include
background,
or
preexisting
knowledge,
contextual
connections,
mental
imaging
and
the
reader’s
questioning
the
text
as
a
means
to
make
sense
of
the
literature.
Overall,
Stanovich
believes
that
phonological
and
phonemic
awareness
and
orthographic
and
lexical
knowledge
form
the
foundation
for
reading
acquisition.
These
skills
help
readers
read
with
fluency.
The
focus
of
his
study
was
to
look
at
what
poor
readers
do
to
compensate
when
there
is
a
deficit.
As
mentioned
earlier
in
the
report
struggling
reader
resort
to
using
other
cognitive
process
to
help
read
words
and
make
meaning.
My
student
did
not
read
with
fluency
(accurately
and
reasonably
quickly).
I
noticed
her
struggling
to
navigate
the
text.
She
seemed
both
unable
to
discern
the
meaning
of
words
and
to
form
the
larger
associations
necessary
to
understand,
interpret
and
explicate
the
text
as
a
unified
document.
I
feared
for
her
ability
to
sustain
any
appreciable
gains
in
fluency
while
simultaneously
deriving
a
clearer
understanding
of
the
strategies
necessary
to
ensure
the
gains
held.
How,
then,
to
make
the
lesson
self-­‐reinforcing,
as
in
the
Matthew
ideology
of
learning?
The
Matthew
model
says
the
more
one
practices
and
is
engaged
with
a
task,
the
better
one
becomes
at
a
task.
The
converse,
however,
is
also
true:
the
less
one
practices
a
skill
and
the
less
one
engages
with
a
task,
the
less
likely
one
is
to
pursue
and
become
skilled
at
said
task,
like
reading.
Ultimately,
how
did
Stanovich’s
Interactive
Compensatory
Model
impact
my
ability
to
tutor
more
effectively
and
ensure
my
student
sustained
the
gains
she
made?
Stanovich’s
Toward
an
Interactive-­‐-­‐Compensatory
Model
of
Individual
Differences
in
the
Development
of
Reading
Fluency
does
not
provide
teachers
with
instructions
on
how
to
aid

4. students
in
becoming
fluent
readers;
however,
his
study
explains
how
the
mind
understands
language
and
narrative
and
how
readers
compensate
for
their
reading
deficiencies.
Guided
reading
allows
educators
to
see
and
assess
the
strategies
readers
use
to
compensate
for
their
weaknesses
as
described
in
Stanovich’s
Interactive
Compensatory
Model.
Guided
reading
is
an
excellent
assessment
tool
in
an
educator’s
tool
belt.
I
consulted
Stanovich’s
colleagues
including
Ehri,
McCormick,
LaBerge
and
Samuels
to
address
Rachael’s
fluency
issues.
Stanovich
and
his
colleagues
point
out
that
fluency
is
not
just
the
ability
to
read
with
prosody
and
elocution
but
also
involves
comprehending
what
one
is
reading.
Struggling
readers
will
often
use
other
strategies
to
help
them
understand
passages
such
as
context
clues
to
figure
out
word
meaning;
young
readers
looking
for
picture
clues;
and
readers
using
punctuation
to
gage
characters’
feelings
such
as
exclamation
points,
quotation
marks
and
bold
words
to
discern
what
happens
in
the
story.
Decoding
is
a
prerequisite
to
reading
with
fluency
and
fluency
aids
with
comprehending
text.
According
to
the
research,
the
mind
cannot
process
decoding
and
comprehending
at
the
same
time.
Rachael’s
decoding
skills
within
text
and
out
of
text
were
fair
According
to
the
research
the
following
strategies
can
aid
with
correcting
fluency
and
comprehension
difficulties:
• Timed
Repeated
Reading
Consists
of
(a)
selecting
a
short
passage
at
a
student’s
instructional
level;
(b)
setting
a
rate
criterion;
and
(c)
having
the
student
read
and
reread
until
the
time
rate
criterion
is
reached
• Repeated
Reading
with
Recorded
Models
Using
audiotaped
text
to
support
repeated
readings
• Poetry
Reading
Reading
poetry
to
teach
meter
and
word
groupings
• Listening
to
Literature
on
Tape
Aural
repetitive
listening
accustoms
readers
to
the
rhythms
and
cadences
of
the
spoken
word.
These
strategies
can
help
the
student
improve
her
fluency
and
develop
and
sustain
a
love
for
reading.