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Lab investigations in OMFS- ih
1.
2. P R E S E N T E R - D R . I T R A T H U S S A I N
M O D E R A T O R – D R . A L O K B H A T N A G A R
LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS
IN OMFS
3. INTRODUCTION
Laboratory Tests include any test or
examination of materials derived from the
human body for the purpose of making
patient care decisions and improving
public health.
laboratory measurements form the scientific basis
upon which medical diagnosis and management of
patients is established.
5. HAEMATOLOGY
Is the branch of internal medicine, physiology,
pathology, clinical laboratory work, and pediatrics
that is concerned with the study of blood, the blood-
forming organs, and blood diseases.
Hematology includes the study of etiology, diagnosis,
treatment, prognosis, and prevention of blood
diseases.
7. Haemoglobin
Normal: Women:12.0-16.0g/dl
Men: 14.0-17.4 g/dl
anemia states,
thalassemia,
hemoglobinopathie
s
Liver disease,
hypothyroidism
Hemorrhage(chroni
c or acute)
DECREASED
IN
Polycythemia vera
COPD
Congestive heart
failure
INCREASED
IN
high altitude = Hb
Excessive fluid intake
= Hb
pregnancy
INTERFER
ING
FACTORS
8. RED BLOOD CELL COUNT
The RCC is an important measurement in the
evaluation of anemia or polycythemias and
determines the total number of erythrocytes per ml
of blood.
Reference Values
Men: 4.2-5.4x 106/mm3
Women: 3.6-5.0 x 106/mm3
9. Decreased counts:
Anemias
Disorders such as:
Hodgkins disease and lymphomas
Rheumatic fever
SABE
Erythrocytosis- Increased count:
Polycythemis vera
Renal disease
Extrarenal tumors
High altitude
Pulmonary disease
Cardiovascular disease
Hemoglobinopathy
10. Red Blood Cell Abnormalities Seen on Stained
Smear
Anisocytosis - Variability of cell size . pernicious anaemia
Leptocytosis - Hypochromic cells with central zone of Hgb (“target
cells”) Thalassemias , Obstructive jaundice
Schistocytosis - MCHC high, Accelerated red blood cell
destruction .
Acanthocytosis - Presence of cell fragments in Circulation ,
Increased intravascular mechanical trauma .
Echinocytosis - Irregularly spiculated surface , Irreversibly
abnormal membrane lipid content , Liver disease.
Elliptocytosis - Oval cells , Hereditary anomaly, usually harmless .
11. Macrocytosis - Megaloblastic anemias , Severe liver disease,
Hypothyroidism
Microcytosis - Iron-deficiency anemia ,Thalassemias
Hypochromia - Increased zone of central pallor , Diminished Hgb
content
Hyperchromia -Microcytic, hyperchromic cells, Increased bone marrow
stores of Iron
Polychromatophilia -Presence of red cells not fully Hemoglobinized ;
Reticulocytosis
Poikilocytosis - Variability of cell shape ; Sickle cell disease, Leukemias
12. Hematocrit (PCV)
Normal
Men: 40-50%
Women: 37-47%
Decreased Hct
Leukiemias
Adrenal insufficiency
Chronic disease
Acute and chronic blood loss
Hemolytic reaction
Increase values:
Erythrocytosis
Polycythemis Vera
Shock
13. Red Blood Cell Indices
MCV,MCHC and MCH
They are used to differentiate anemias and when
they are used together with peripheral smear give a
clear picture of the RBC morphology.
14. MCV
This index expresses the volume occupied by a single
RBC
Refrence Values
Normal:
80-100 fl
Decreased MCV- iron defeciency anemia, β-
thalassemia trait, sideroblastic anemia.
Increased -Megaloblastic anemia,Myelodysplasia
15. MCH
average weight of Hb per RBC.
This index is of value in diagnosing severely anemic
patients.
Refrence Values
Normal 26-34 pg/cell
Clinical Implications
An increase in the MCH is associated with
macrocytic anemias and newborns
A decrease is associated with microcytic anemia
16. Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration
(MCHC)
Monitoring the therapy for anemia.
Normal
32-36 %
CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
Decreased MCHC values signify that a unit volume of
packed RBC contains less Hb than normal
Hypochromic anemias <30g/dl occurs in:
Iron deficiency
Microcytic anemias,chronic blood loss anemias
Increased MCHC values occur in :
Spherocytosis
Newborns and infants
17. Total Leukocyte Count
WBC serve as a useful guide to the severity of the disease
process.It calculates total number of leukocytes per mm3
of blood
Normal
Adults 4.5-10.5x 103 cells/mm3
Children:
2 months – 6 years: 5.0-21.0x103 cells/mm3
6-18 years: 4.8-10.8x 103 cells/mm3
18. Leukocytosis: WBC > 11000/mm3
Usually caused by an increase of one type of cell and an increase is
rarely caused by a proportional increase of all cell types.
Leukaemoid Reaction
Acute infections: degree of increase depends on severity of infection,
patients resistance, age, marrow efficiency and reserves.
Other causes:
Leukemia
Trauma
Malignant neoplasms
Hemolysis,Hemorrhage
Tissue Necrosis
19. Leukopenia WBC < 4000/mm3
Viral infections,some bacterial infections
Hypersplenism
Bone marrow depression caused by heavy metal
intoxication,drugs,ionizing radiation
Pimary bone marrow disorders:Leukemias,Pernicious
anemia,aplastic anemia
Immune associate
INTERFERING FACTORS
Age
Stress
20. Differential Leukocyte Count
The total count of circulating WBC is differentiated
according to 5 types of leukocytes,each of which
performs specific function expressed as a % of total
WBC.
21. Neutrophils
Neutrophils constitue a primary defense against
microbial infection through a process known as
phagocytosis..
Neutrophilia- increase in absolute no. of neutrophils
Neutropenia- decrease in the absolute no.
Refrence values
Normal absolute count- 3000-7000 cells/mm 3
Differential- 50 % of total WBC
22. Neutrophilia: >8x 109 /L
Acute/Localized/gen/ bacterial infections, fungal
and spirochetal infections
Inflammation and tissue necrosis
Metabolic intoxication
Chemical and drugs
Acute hemorrhage, hemolytic anemia,transfusion
reactions
Myeloproliferative disease
Malignant neoplasms
23. Neutropenia <1.8x10 9/l
A) decreased or ineffective production
Stem cell disorders
Acute infections
Viral infections
Malaria
Drugs,chemicals,ionizing radiation
B) decreased survival
low marrow reserve,infants,elderley
Autoimmune causes
Drug hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
25. Eosinophils
Capable of phagocytosis,ingest Ag-Ab complexes and become active in later
stages of inflammation
Used to diagnose allergic states,
Assess severity of infestation with worms and large parasite and monitor
Rx.
Refrence Values
Normal: Absoluute: 0-0.7x109/l
Diff: 0%-3% of total WBC
CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
Eosinophilia: > 5% or >500 cells/mm3
Allergies, asthma
Parasitic disease
Chronic skin disease- pemphigus,eczema,dermatitis herpetiforms
Allergic drug reactions
26. Eosinopenia:
Usually caused by increased adrenal steroid
production associated with
A. Cushing Syndrome
B. use of certain drugs
INTERFERING FACTORS
Normal count lowest in mornings, highest from noon
till after midnight so repeated at same time each day.
27. Basophils
Phagocytic,used to study chronic inflammation
Refrence Values
Normal: Absolute:15-50/mm3
Differential: 0%-1% of total count
Clinical Implications
Basophilia >50/ mm
Granulocytic leukemia
Acute basophilic leukemia
Acute phase of infection
Hyperthyroidism
Prolonged steroid therapy
28. Monocytes
Largest cell,second line of defense against infection;scavenger
action;produce antiviral agent interferon
Reference values
Normal: Absolute: 100-500 /mm3
Differntial: 3-7% of total wbc
CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
Monocytosis >500 cells/,mm
bacterial infection sabe,
syphilis
Ca breast, stomach
hodgkins disease
Monocytopenia <100 cells/ mm
Predisone Rx
Hairy cell leukemia
HIV
30. Lymphocytopenia: adult<1000 cells/mm3
children < 2500 cellls /mm3
Chemotherapy,radiation,immunosupressive
medication
Increased loss through GIT
Aplastic anemia
Hodgkins lymphoma
AIDS
Rheumatoid arthritis, SLE
31. Some WBC abnormalities
Atypical lymphocytes Infectious mononucleosis, any viral
infection,toxoplasmosis, drug reactions.
Auer rods Seen in myeloblasts; pathognomonic of
AML.Prominent in AML M3 subtype (acute promyelocytic
leukaemia).
Left shifted Immature WBCs seen in peripheral blood. Seen
in severe infections, inflammatory disorders, marrow ‘stress’,
CML.
Right shifted Hypermature WBCs seen in peripheral
bloode.g. megaloblastic anaemia and iron deficiency.
32. Toxic granulation: Coarse granules in
neutrophils. Seen in severe infection, post-
operatively and inflammatory disorders.
33. PLATELET COUNT
As a screening tests for the disorders of platelet function
both congenital and acquired and for Willebrand’s disease
Bleeding time
Normal range:
Duke’s method: 3 ½ minute with a value of 4 min or more
being definitely abnormal
Ivy method: Normal range upto 11 minutes most normal
people cease bleeding within 7 minutes
Increased:
I.T.P. - > Due to lack of platelets
Secondary Thrombocytopenia
Acute leukemias
Aplastic Anemias
Septicemia
34. BLEEDING TIME
Range – 2–10 minutes
This is a test of platelet function, not a test of
coagulation factors.
↑ Platelet disorders, thrombocytopenia, thrombasthenia
. Drugs: aspirin and other preparations containing
aspirin.
Test is useful as a screening test (with aspirin challenge)
for diagnosis of von Willebrand’s disease and platelet
disorders.
35. CLOTTING TIME
It is the time taken by blood to coagulate after it has been
shed.
Wright’s capillary tube method - Normal – 1-3 minutes
Lee and whites method – Normal – 5 to 11 minutes at 370
INCREASED IN
In hemophelia, (due to the lack of the antihemophilic
globulin ) – may be upto 60mts or more.
In liver disease - when liver is unable to synthesize factor
II, V, VII, X
In hereditary
In von willebrand’s disease
Occasionally in leukemia
Acute febrile conditions.
36. Conditions where CT is reduced
In typhoid
In endocarditis
After meal
After hemorrhage
After Splenectomy
After GA
Digitalis Therapy
37. Prothrombin time (PT)
The prothrombin time (PT) and its derived measures
of international normalized ratio (INR) are measures
of the extrinsic pathway of coagulation.
The INR is the ratio of a patients prothrombin time
to a normal (control)sample, raised to the power of
the ISI value for the analytical system used.
The reference range for prothrombin time is usually
around 11–16 seconds (70% - 100%)
The normal range for the INR is 0.8–1.2
38. INR for those receiving therapeutic anticoagulation
therapy is 2.0 to 3.0.
For those with mechanical prosthetic heart valves, an
INR of 2.5 to 3.5 is suggested
Prolonged PT/INR
• Warfarin / heparin therapy
• Liver diseases
• Malabsorption of Vit. K
• DIC
• Haemorrhagic diseases of new born
39. Activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT or
APTT)
Is a performance indicator measuring the efficacy of both
the "intrinsic" (now referred to as the contact activation
pathway) and the common coagulation pathways
Normal:Partial thromboplastin time (PTT): 30 - 45
seconds
Prolonged APTT
Haemophilia
Von Willibrand disease
Warfarin/heparin therapy
Liver diseases
DIC
40. THROMBIN TIME
Range – 24–35 seconds
Physiologic Basis – Prolongation of the thrombin time indicates
a defect in conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin
Increase: Low fibrinogen , abnormal fibrinogen
(dysfibrinogenemia), increased fibrin degradation products
(egDIC), heparin, fibrinolytic agents (streptokinase, urokinase,
tissue plasminogen activator), primary systemic amyloidosis
Thrombin time can be used to monitor fibrinolytic therapy and to
screen for circulating anticoagulants.
41. Factor eight assay
Range – 40–150% of normal
Physiologic Basis – Measures activity of factor VIII
Interpretation - ↑ Inflammatory states (acute phase
reactant), last trimester of pregnancy, oral
contraceptives.
↓Hemophilia A , von Willebrand’s disease,DIC
Comments – Normal haemostasis requires at least
25% of factor VIII activity. Symptomatic hemophiliacs
usually have levels ≤5%
42. BLOOD CHEMISTRY
Electrolyte panel Na,K,Cl,Ca,CO2,pH
Kidney function BUN, Creatinine,,uric acid
Lipids Cholesterol,triglycerides,LDL,HDL
Liver function Total biliribin, alkaline phosphatase
GGT,Total protein,A/G ratio,Albumin,
AST,ALT
Thyroid Function T3 uptake,free T3, T4, Total T3,T4,TSH
Diabetes Panel Blood sugar(Fasting,PP,Random)GTT,
HbA1c
43. ELECTROLYTES
Sodium(Na)
Detects changes in the water balance,acid-base balance and assess
dehydration and water intoxication.
Reference values:
Normal
Adults: 136-145 mEq/L
CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
=> HYPONATREMIA
Severe burns Severe Nephritis
CHF Diabetic acidosis
Fluid loss Diuretics
Addisons disease water intoxication
44. HYPERNATREMIAA
Dehydration and insufficient water intake
Conns disease
Primary aldosteronism
Cushing disease
Diabetes insipidus
45. Potassium
Plays role in nerve conduction,muscle function,acid-
base balance and osmotic pressure,rate and force of
heart contraction and C.O
REFERENCE VALUES
Normal
Adults: 3.5-5.2mEq/L
Children 3.4-4.7mEq/L
47. Calcium
Measures the concentration of total and ionized calcium in blood
Reflects parathyroid and calcitonin function
Reference values
Normal
Adult 9-11 mg/dl
CLINICAL IMPLICATION
Hypercalcemia >12mg/dl Hypocalcemia
hyperparathyroidism
Cancer (PTH producing tumor) hypoparathyroidism
Thyroid toxicosis hyperphosphatemia
Pagets disease malabsorption
Vit D intake excess osteomalacia
vit D deficiency
48. Phosphorous
Evaluated with calcium as inversely proportional to ca
Reference
Adult 2.7-4.5 mg/dl
Children 4.5-5.5 mg/dl
CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
Increased levels Decreased levels
Kidney dysfunction,uremia hypoparathyroidism
Renal insufficiency Rickets
Nephritis Diabetic coma
Hypoparathyroidism liver disease
Hypocalcemia vomiting,diarrhoea
Bone tumors gram –ve septecemia
56. Bilirubin
Results from breakdown of Hb in RBC and is a byproduct
of hemolysis.
Excreted into bile by liver
> indirect(unconjugated, protein bound)
> direct (conjugated, free)
Allows evaluation for liver function and hemolytic
anemias
Reference
Normal
Total 0.3-1.0 mg/dl
Conjugated 0.0-0.2mg/dl
57. Total increase accompanied by jaundice due to either hepatic,obstructive or
hemolytic causes
Hepatocellular jaundice
o Viral
o Cirrhosis
o Infectious mononucleosus
Obstructive
o Increased conjugated biliribin
Hemolytic (Increased unconjugated)
o Blood transfusion
o Sickle cell anemia
o Transfusion reaction
58. Increase in indirect
• Hemolytic anemia
• Trauma
• Gilbert syndrome
Increase in direct bilirubin
• Cancer of pancreas
• Dubin johnsons
59. AST/SGOT
Enzyme present in tissues of increased metabolic
activity like heart, liver, skeletal muscle, kidney,
brain, pancreas, spleen and lungs
Released into circulation following injury or cell
death
So any damage in these tissues-- increase in AST
Reference
Normal
6-25 IU/l
60. Increases Decreases
In MI chronic renal diseases
In Liver damage vitamin B6 deficiency
Acute hepatitis
Chronic hepatitis
Cirrhosis
Hepatic necrosis
Primary Ca.
Alcoholic hepatitis
Others:
Hypothyrodism
Trauma of skeletal muscle
Toxic shock syndrome
61. ALT/SGPT
Increased concentration in liver,relatively low in
heart,muscle and kidney
Primary to diagnose liver diseases and monitoring
Rx
Reference
Normal
3-26 IU/L
62. Increases
Hepatocellular jaundice
Alcoholic cirrhosis
Metastatic liver tumor
Obstructive jaundice
Viral,infectious,toxic hepatitis
MI,heart failure
AST/ALT comparision
AST always increases in acute MI,ALT does not unless liver
damage
ALT increased > AST in acute extrahepatic biliary obstruction
ALT more specific to liver disease
63. Alkaline phosphatase
Enzyme originating in bone,liver
Used as an index of liver and bone disease
Refrence values
Normal
Males 1-12 yrs < 350 u/l
12-14 <500 u/l
>20 yrs 25-100 u/l
Females 1-12 yrs <350 u/l
>15 25-100 u/l
64. INCREASES in
Liver Diseases OTHER DISEASES
Obstructive Jaundice hyperparathyroid
Space Occupying Lesions Of Liver hyperthyroidism
Hepatocellular cirrhosis hodgkins disease
Biliary cirrhosis Ca liver, pancreas
Intra and extra hepatic cholestasis DECREASES IN
Hepatitis congenital
DM malnutrition
Bone diseases hypothyroidism
Pagets disease anemias
Metastatic bone tumors
Osteogenic sarcoma
Osteomalacia
Rickets
65. Albumin
Buffer function
Reference
Normal
Adult -3.5-5.2 g/dl
CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
Decreases
Acute and chronic inflammation,infections
Cirrhosis ,liver disease,alcoholism,
Burns
Starvation,malnutrition
Thyroid diseases
68. Hemoglobin A1c Test
The hemoglobin A1c test, also called HbA1c, glycated
hemoglobin test, or glycohemoglobin, is an important
blood test that shows how well diabetes is being
controlled.
Hemoglobin A1c provides an average of your blood sugar
control over the past 2 to 3 months
used along with home blood sugar monitoring to make
adjustments in diabetes medicines. ,
normal range = 4% -5.6%.
levels between 5.7% and 6.4% indicate increased risk of
diabetes.
levels of 6.5% or higher indicate uncontrolled diabetes
70. Cholesterol
Evaluates the risk for atherosclerosis,myocardial
occlusion,and coronary artery occlusion.
Relates to CHD, screening test
Also part of liver function,renal function and DM studies
Reference values
Normal
Adults fasting
Desirable 140-199mg/dl
Borderline high-200-239 mg/dl
High >240 mg/dl
73. HDL
Class Of Lipoprotein Produced By Liver And
Intestine
Cholesterol Balance-removes It From Arteries
INCREASED LEVELS- CARDIOPROTECTIVE
Reference values
Normal
Men 35-65 mg/dl
Women: 35-80 mg/dl
78. Triglycerides
Account for >90% of dietary fat intake and 95% of stored
fat
Main plasma glycerol ester
Test evaluates suspected atherosclerosis and body’s
ability to metabolise fat
Reference values
Normal
Desirable <150mg/dl
Borderline 150-199mg/dl
High 200-499mg/dl
Very high> 500mg/dl
84. Syphilis Detection Test
Venereal disease – Caused by treponema pallidum
Ab to syphilis begin to appear 4-6 weeks after infection.
Non-treponemal test- presence of reagin which is a non-
treponemal auto-antibody directed against cardiolipin
antigens.
SCREENING TESTS
Specific tests detect antibodies to T.Pallidum- Confirmatory
Passive particle agglutination T.Pallidum test.(TP-TA)
Fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption test (FTA-ABS)
Reference value
NORMAL-nonreactive, negative for syphilis
85. Diagnosis- Correlation of history, physical and result of
confirmatory test.
Confirm-with both screening + confirmatory is reactive
If negative-
Patient does not have syphilis
Too recent infection, repeat at 1 week, 1 month & 3month interval
Latent /Inactive phase
Faulty immunodefense mechanism
False Positive False –ve
drug abuse early in disease course
LE during inactive or later stages
Recent immunnization
leprosy
86. HIV
Detec HIV virus type 1 and 2.
used to determine the presence of antibodies to
HIV-1
include ELISA, western blot & PCR.
Single reactive ELISA – repeated in duplicate
If repeatedly reactive – follow up western blot
If positive– confirmatory
HIV-1/2- also to screen blood + by products for
transfusion and organ transplant donors
87. Whom to test How to test
IV drug users Screening enzyme immuno assay &
confirmatory test
People engaging in unprotected sex W.B detects antibodies to HIV-1
coreantigens:-
gp1, , p18, p24, p31, p40,
p65, p55/51
Pregnant women IFA confirmatory test detects
potent ab’s by
fluoroscense tagged secondary
antibodies
Signs of pneumonia /skin lesion Viral RNA + p24 antigen with
CD4 count monitors
treatment.
Nucleic acid amplification testing
(NAT)monitors viral load
88. HEPATITIS
95% of hepatitis cases are due to 5 major
types:hepatitis A,B,C,D,E
Serodiagnosis of previous exposure and recovery is
complex
Testing methods include ELISA, PCR
89. HEPATITIS TESTS
VIRUS TRANSMISSION INCUBATION
PERIOD
TEST FOR ACUTE
INFECTION
Hepatitis A Fecal-oral Av 30 Days (Range 15-50
Days)
Igm Antibody To
Hepatitis A Capsid
Protein
Hepatitis B Sexual,Blood and
other body parts
Av 120 days
(range 45-160 days)
HBsAg;the best test is
IgM antibody to HBcAg
Hepatitis C Blood Commonly 6-9 wk(range
2wk-6mo)
ELISA initial test
PCR confirmatory
Hepatitis D Sexual,Blood and
other body fluids
2-8 wk Total antibody to delta
hepatitis shows if ever
infected
Hepatitis E Fecal-oral Av 26-42 d(range,15-64d)
90. CANDIDA
Candidiasis- usually caused by C. albicans
Identifying candida Ab can be helpful for diagnosing systemic
candidiasis
Tests used- Immunodiffusion,latex agglutination for candida
antigen
Refrence Values
Normal –ve for candida Abs
Clinical Implications
A titer ≥ 1:8 indicates systemic infection
A fourfold increase in titres of paired blood samples 10-14
days apart indicate acute infection
Long term IV antibiaotic therapy and diabetic patients- risk
91. Blood groups
Blood is grouped according to presence or absence of specific blood
group antibodies
Specifical linked sugars determine the antigenic activities.
Relationship b/w Blood Antigens and Antibodies
Antigen present on
RBC
Antibodies present in
Serum
Major Blood Gp
Designation
NONE ANTI A , ANTI B O (UNIVERSAL DONOR)
A ANTI B A
B ANTI A B
AB NONE AB(UNIVERSAL
RECEPIENT)
92. Rh Typing
Human blood is classified as Rh +ve or -ve
Relates to presence or absence of D antigen on the RBC
membrane.(now called the Rh1[D] antigen
Rh –ve individuals may develop antibodies against Rh
positive antigens if they are challenged through a transfusion
of Rh +ve blood or through a fetomaternal bleed from an Rh
+ve fetus
Rh typing must be done because:
Rh +ve blood administered to Rh –ve person may sensitize
the person to form anti-D(Rh1)
Rh +ve blood to person having serum anti-D. ~Fatal
Rh –ve pregnant women:RhIG dose antepartum at 28 weeks
of gestation and a postpartum inj. Shortly after delivery of an
Rh +ve infant
93. Coomb’s Antiglobulin Test
Direct Coombs test -detects Ag-Ab complexes on the RBC
membrane
Used to test for autoimmune hemolytic anemia
Indirect Coombs test -detects anti-RBC antibodies in the
serum
Used in prenatal testing of pregnant women, and in
testing blood prior to transfusion.
Clinical Implications
Helps in diagnosing-
• Hemolytic disease of the newborn
• Acquired hemolytic anemia
• Transfusion reaction
94. Conclusion
Laboratory and diagnostic tests are tools which when
used in conjunction with a thorough history and physical
examination may confirm a diagnosis or provide
information about patients status and response to
therapy.
Test selections are based on subjective clinical
judgement, national recommendations and evidence
based health care
Effective communication is the key to achieving desired
outcomes,preventing misunderstanding and errors,and
helping patients feel they are informed partners and are
connected to the diagnostic process.