Between 600 BC and 300 AD: - Many towns sprang up across India as agriculture intensified, though most people still lived in villages and cooperated on local projects. - Notable towns included Kushinagar and Rajgir. The Chola and Pandya dynasties ruled parts of Tamil Nadu and neighboring Kerala. - The Chola kingdom was centered around the Cholamandalam region, with its capital at Uraiyur, known for cotton trade. A 2nd century BC Chola ruler conquered Sri Lanka. - The Pandya kingdom covered parts of modern Tamil Nadu, with its capital at Madurai. Most Tamils were farmers living in villages or crafts