1. Cross Cultural MissionsCross Cultural Missions
(Intercultural)(Intercultural)
Joshva RajaJoshva Raja
Session 10Session 10

2. 1. Anxiety-Uncertainty Management1. Anxiety-Uncertainty Management
Theory (AUM)Theory (AUM)
 "Individuals attempt to reduce uncertainty in initial"Individuals attempt to reduce uncertainty in initial
interactions with strangers."--Berger and Calabreseinteractions with strangers."--Berger and Calabrese
(Guirdham 205)(Guirdham 205)
 --The greater the amount of communication the lower--The greater the amount of communication the lower
the uncertainty.the uncertainty.
 three General Strategies For Reducingthree General Strategies For Reducing
UncertaintyUncertainty
1. Passive Strategy- doing nothing and hoping that as1. Passive Strategy- doing nothing and hoping that as
time passes things will become clearer.time passes things will become clearer.
2. Active Strategy- finding out as much as possible2. Active Strategy- finding out as much as possible
from other people.from other people.
3. Interactive strategy- seeking out opportunities to3. Interactive strategy- seeking out opportunities to
interact with people about whom uncertainty exists.interact with people about whom uncertainty exists.
Using those occasion to obtain as much informationUsing those occasion to obtain as much information
as possible.as possible.

3. AssumptionsAssumptions
 1. There is at least one person in the interaction1. There is at least one person in the interaction
that is unknown to the other.that is unknown to the other.
2. Strangers experience anxiety with initial2. Strangers experience anxiety with initial
interactions and are unsure how to behave.interactions and are unsure how to behave.
3. Both uncertainty and anxiety are independent3. Both uncertainty and anxiety are independent
elements of interpersonal/interculturalelements of interpersonal/intercultural
communication.communication.
4. The stranger's monitor their actions actively.4. The stranger's monitor their actions actively.
5. Interpersonal/Intercultural communication is5. Interpersonal/Intercultural communication is
altered by all forms of communication.altered by all forms of communication.
6. There can be an exaggeration of influence of6. There can be an exaggeration of influence of
one group member over the entire group.one group member over the entire group.
(Guirdham 209)(Guirdham 209)

4. AxiomsAxioms
 1. Increasing stranger's positive expectations.1. Increasing stranger's positive expectations.
2. Increase in similarities between members2. Increase in similarities between members
from different groups.from different groups.
3. Increase in networking among strangers from3. Increase in networking among strangers from
different groups.different groups.
4. Increase in stranger's self-monitoring.4. Increase in stranger's self-monitoring.
5. Increase in stranger's tolerance for ambiguity.5. Increase in stranger's tolerance for ambiguity.
6. Increase in attributional confidence which in6. Increase in attributional confidence which in
turn leads to an increase in inter-groupturn leads to an increase in inter-group
adaptation.adaptation.
7. Decrease in anxiety leads to inter-group7. Decrease in anxiety leads to inter-group
adaptation.adaptation.
8. Increase in uncertainty avoidance leads to8. Increase in uncertainty avoidance leads to
increase in anxiety.increase in anxiety.
(Guirdham 210)(Guirdham 210)

5. ResourcesResources
 Berger, C.R. (1979).Berger, C.R. (1979). Beyond InitialBeyond Initial
Interaction:Uncertainty, Understanding, and theInteraction:Uncertainty, Understanding, and the
Development of Interpersonal Relationships. In H.Development of Interpersonal Relationships. In H.
Giles & St.Clair (Eds.), Language and SocialGiles & St.Clair (Eds.), Language and Social
PsychologyPsychology (pp.122-144). Oxford:Blackwell.(pp.122-144). Oxford:Blackwell.
Berger, C.R. (1988).Berger, C.R. (1988). Uncertainty and InformationUncertainty and Information
Exchange in Developing Relationships.Exchange in Developing Relationships. In S. DuckIn S. Duck
(Ed.) "Handbook of Personal Relationships" (pp.239-(Ed.) "Handbook of Personal Relationships" (pp.239-
255). London:John Wiley.255). London:John Wiley.
 Guirdham, M. (1999).Guirdham, M. (1999). Communication AcrossCommunication Across
Cultures.Cultures.Canada:MacMillian Press.Canada:MacMillian Press.
Infante, D.A., Rancer, A.S., & Womack, D.F. (1997).Infante, D.A., Rancer, A.S., & Womack, D.F. (1997).
Building Communication TheoryBuilding Communication Theory (3rd ed.) Prospect(3rd ed.) Prospect
Heights, IL.:Waveland Press.Heights, IL.:Waveland Press.

6. Humanistic ApproachHumanistic Approach
 A healthy individual will tend to seeA healthy individual will tend to see
congruence between their sense of whocongruence between their sense of who
they are (self) and who they feel theythey are (self) and who they feel they
should be (ideal self). While no oneshould be (ideal self). While no one
tends to experience perfect congruencetends to experience perfect congruence
at all times, the relative degree ofat all times, the relative degree of
congruence is an indicator of one'scongruence is an indicator of one's
effectiveness to guide others and beeffectiveness to guide others and be
guided by himself.guided by himself. (Carl Rogers)(Carl Rogers)
 leader seeks to provide empathy,leader seeks to provide empathy,
openness, and unconditional positiveopenness, and unconditional positive
regard. regard.

7. Maslow’s theoryMaslow’s theory
 Maslow's theory emphasizes motivationMaslow's theory emphasizes motivation
as the key to understanding humanas the key to understanding human
behavior behavior
 Peak experiences are defined by MaslowPeak experiences are defined by Maslow
as moments in life which take us beyondas moments in life which take us beyond
our ordinary perceptions, thoughts, andour ordinary perceptions, thoughts, and
feelings. Typically, the individual feelsfeelings. Typically, the individual feels
energized, more "alive" in that he/she isenergized, more "alive" in that he/she is
literally "enlightenment"), which comesliterally "enlightenment"), which comes
unexpectedly, and transforms theunexpectedly, and transforms the
individual's understanding of themselvesindividual's understanding of themselves
and the world. and the world.
 "A sense making process in which two"A sense making process in which two
parties achieve a shared meaning." parties achieve a shared meaning."

8. ResourcesResources
Rogers, C. R. (1961)Rogers, C. R. (1961) On Becoming aOn Becoming a
Person. A therapist's view ofPerson. A therapist's view of
psychotherapypsychotherapy, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, Boston: Houghton Mifflin
(1967 - London: Constable)(1967 - London: Constable)
Rogers, C. R. (1980)Rogers, C. R. (1980) A Way of BeingA Way of Being,,
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

9.  Edward T. Hall defines culture as, "man's medium;Edward T. Hall defines culture as, "man's medium;
there is not one aspect of human life that is notthere is not one aspect of human life that is not
touched and altered by culture. This meanstouched and altered by culture. This means
personality, how people express themselvespersonality, how people express themselves
(including shows of emotion), the way they think,(including shows of emotion), the way they think,
how they move, how problems are solved, how theirhow they move, how problems are solved, how their
cities are planned and laid out, how transportationcities are planned and laid out, how transportation
systems function and are organized, as well as howsystems function and are organized, as well as how
economic and government systems are put togethereconomic and government systems are put together
and function. It is the least studied aspects of cultureand function. It is the least studied aspects of culture
that influence behavior in the deepest and mostthat influence behavior in the deepest and most
subtle ways" (Hall, 1976, p. 14).subtle ways" (Hall, 1976, p. 14).
 Basically, the theory of High and Low ContextBasically, the theory of High and Low Context
Cultures refers to the way persons of differentCultures refers to the way persons of different
cultures interact with each other throughout theircultures interact with each other throughout their
daily lives.daily lives.

10. Colorado

11. Edward T HallEdward T Hall
Monochronic and Polychronic culturesMonochronic and Polychronic cultures
High context culture and low contextHigh context culture and low context
cultureculture
ProxemicsProxemics
The Silent Language, Beyond Culture, TheThe Silent Language, Beyond Culture, The
Dance of Life,Dance of Life, andand Hidden DifferencesHidden Differences

13. Low context cultureLow context culture
Logical and linearLogical and linear
Personal control overPersonal control over
the environmentthe environment
Present and futurePresent and future
orientedoriented
Reliance on the verbalReliance on the verbal
over the nonverbalover the nonverbal
messagemessage
CompetitiveCompetitive
Change over traditionChange over tradition
High context cultureHigh context culture
Relational and intuitiveRelational and intuitive
Love and harmonyLove and harmony
with naturewith nature
Past orientedPast oriented
Reliance on non-Reliance on non-
verbal codes oververbal codes over
verbal messagesverbal messages
CooperativeCooperative
Traditions overTraditions over
changechange

14. MONOCHRONIC PEOPLE POLYCHRONIC PEOPLE
do one thing at a time do many things at once
concentrate on the job
are highly distractable and subject to
interruptions
take time commitments (deadlines,
schedules) seriously
consider an objective to be achieved, if
possible
are low-context and need information
are high-context and already have
information
are committed to the job
are committed to people and human
relationships
adhere religiously to plans change plans often and easily
are concerned about not disturbing
others; follow rules of privacy and
consideration
are more concerned with those who are
closely related (family, friends, close
business associates) than with
privacy
show great respect for private
property; seldom borrow or lend
borrow and lend things often and easily
emphasize promptness base promptness on the relationship
are accustomed to short-term
relationships
have strong tendency to build lifetime
relationships

16. ResourcesResources
 Hall, Edward T.,Hall, Edward T., Beyond CultureBeyond Culture, Anchor, Anchor
Press/Doubleday, Garden City, New York, 1976Press/Doubleday, Garden City, New York, 1976
Hall, Edward T., and Mildred Reed,Hall, Edward T., and Mildred Reed, HiddenHidden
Differences, Doing Business With the JapaneseDifferences, Doing Business With the Japanese,,
Anchor Press, Doubleday: Garden City, NewAnchor Press, Doubleday: Garden City, New
York, 1987York, 1987
Hall, Edward T., and Mildred Reed,Hall, Edward T., and Mildred Reed,
Understanding Cultural DifferencesUnderstanding Cultural Differences, Intercultural, Intercultural
Press, Inc., 1990.Press, Inc., 1990.

17. The Sapir-Whorf HypothesisThe Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
 Linguistic Determinism refers to the idea thatLinguistic Determinism refers to the idea that
the language we use to some extentthe language we use to some extent
determines the way in which we view anddetermines the way in which we view and
think about the world around us.think about the world around us.
 language influences (or controls) the waylanguage influences (or controls) the way
someone thinks about reality.someone thinks about reality.
 The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis sheds light onThe Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis sheds light on
how similar words carry a different meaninghow similar words carry a different meaning
when translated into another languages.when translated into another languages.
Because someone might be raised inBecause someone might be raised in
American culture, this means that they willAmerican culture, this means that they will
struggle to relate foreign to foreign culturesstruggle to relate foreign to foreign cultures
due to the different conventions of otherdue to the different conventions of other
languages.languages.

18. ResourcesResources
Chandler, D.Chandler, D. The Sapir-WhorfThe Sapir-Whorf
Hypothesis. Hypothesis.
<http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/<http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/
short/whorf.html> (2002, March)short/whorf.html> (2002, March)
"Current Interpretations of the Sapir-Whorf"Current Interpretations of the Sapir-Whorf
Hypothesis." Hypothesis."
<http://www.geocities.com/CollegePark/41<http://www.geocities.com/CollegePark/41
10/whorf.html> (2002, March)10/whorf.html> (2002, March)

19. HOFSTEDE'S CULTURALHOFSTEDE'S CULTURAL
PATTERNSPATTERNS
 Hofstede developed a model that identifies fiveHofstede developed a model that identifies five
primary dimensions to differentiate cultures.primary dimensions to differentiate cultures.
 Power distance - It suggests that a society'sPower distance - It suggests that a society's
level of inequality is endorsed by the followerslevel of inequality is endorsed by the followers
as much as by the leaders. Power andas much as by the leaders. Power and
inequality, of course, are extremely fundamentalinequality, of course, are extremely fundamental
facts of any society and anybody with somefacts of any society and anybody with some
international experience will be aware that 'allinternational experience will be aware that 'all
societies are unequal, but some are moresocieties are unequal, but some are more
unequal than others'.unequal than others'.

20. IndividualismIndividualism
 On the individualist side we find societies inOn the individualist side we find societies in
which the ties between individuals are loose:which the ties between individuals are loose:
everyone is expected to look after him/herselfeveryone is expected to look after him/herself
and his/her immediate family. On the collectivistand his/her immediate family. On the collectivist
side, we find societies in which people from birthside, we find societies in which people from birth
onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-
groups, often extended families (with uncles,groups, often extended families (with uncles,
aunts and grandparents) which continueaunts and grandparents) which continue
protecting them in exchange for unquestioningprotecting them in exchange for unquestioning
loyalty.loyalty.

21. Masculinity/FemininityMasculinity/Femininity
 (a) women's values differ less among societies than(a) women's values differ less among societies than
men's values; (b) men's values from one country tomen's values; (b) men's values from one country to
another contain a dimension from very assertiveanother contain a dimension from very assertive
and competitive and maximally different fromand competitive and maximally different from
women's values on the one side, to modest andwomen's values on the one side, to modest and
caring and similar to women's values on the other.caring and similar to women's values on the other.
The assertive pole has been called 'masculine' andThe assertive pole has been called 'masculine' and
the modest, caring pole 'feminine'. The women inthe modest, caring pole 'feminine'. The women in
feminine countries have the same modest, caringfeminine countries have the same modest, caring
values as the men; in the masculine countries theyvalues as the men; in the masculine countries they
are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not asare somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as
much as the men, so that these countries show amuch as the men, so that these countries show a
gap between men's values and women's values.gap between men's values and women's values.

22. Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance
 Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize theUncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the
possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules,possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules,
safety and security measures, and on the philosophicalsafety and security measures, and on the philosophical
and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; 'thereand religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; 'there
can only be one Truth and we have it'. People incan only be one Truth and we have it'. People in
uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional,uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional,
and motivated by inner nervous energy. The oppositeand motivated by inner nervous energy. The opposite
type, uncertainty accepting cultures, are more tolerant oftype, uncertainty accepting cultures, are more tolerant of
opinions different from what they are used to; they try toopinions different from what they are used to; they try to
have as few rules as possible, and on the philosophicalhave as few rules as possible, and on the philosophical
and religious level they are relativist and allow manyand religious level they are relativist and allow many
currents to flow side by side.currents to flow side by side.

23. Long Term/Short TermLong Term/Short Term
OrientationOrientation
Values associated with Long TermValues associated with Long Term
Orientation are thrift and perseverance;Orientation are thrift and perseverance;
values associated with Short Termvalues associated with Short Term
Orientation are respect for tradition,Orientation are respect for tradition,
fulfilling social obligations, and protectingfulfilling social obligations, and protecting
one's 'face'.one's 'face'.

24. Minority and Majority IdentityMinority and Majority Identity
Minority children are faced with socialMinority children are faced with social
challenges that white children do not havechallenges that white children do not have
to deal with. "White children do not needto deal with. "White children do not need
to attend to the norms and values ofto attend to the norms and values of
minority groups unless they have directminority groups unless they have direct
exposure in their neighborhoods andexposure in their neighborhoods and
schools. Minority children, however, areschools. Minority children, however, are
exposed to and compare themselves toexposed to and compare themselves to
White cultural norms through television,White cultural norms through television,
books, and other media" (Nakayama 37).books, and other media" (Nakayama 37).

25. MinorityMinority
1. Conformity1. Conformity
2. Dissonance2. Dissonance
3. Resistance/3. Resistance/
denialdenial
4.Introspection4.Introspection
5. Synergetic5. Synergetic
articulationarticulation
1. Contact1. Contact
2. Disintegration2. Disintegration
3. Reintegration3. Reintegration
4. Pseudo-4. Pseudo-
independentindependent
5. Autonomy5. Autonomy
MajorityMajority

26. ReferencesReferences
 Aoki, Eric. "Cultural Definitions." Co-CulturalAoki, Eric. "Cultural Definitions." Co-Cultural
Communication Lecture, Colorado StateCommunication Lecture, Colorado State
University, Ft. Collins. 10 Sep. 2003.University, Ft. Collins. 10 Sep. 2003.
Gallagher, Charles A. "Miscounting Race:Gallagher, Charles A. "Miscounting Race:
Explaining Whites' Misperceptions of RacialExplaining Whites' Misperceptions of Racial
Group Size."Group Size." Socialogical PerspectivesSocialogical Perspectives 46,346,3
(2003): 381-396.(2003): 381-396.
Greenblatt, Alan. "Are Blacks still HandicappedGreenblatt, Alan. "Are Blacks still Handicapped
by Racism?"by Racism?" CQ ResearcherCQ Researcher 13,25(2003).13,25(2003).

27. Huntington and CivilizationsHuntington and Civilizations
 It is my hypothesis that the fundamental sourceIt is my hypothesis that the fundamental source
of conflict in this new world will not be primarilyof conflict in this new world will not be primarily
ideological or primarily economic. The greatideological or primarily economic. The great
divisions among humankind and the dominatingdivisions among humankind and the dominating
source of conflict will be cultural. Nation statessource of conflict will be cultural. Nation states
will remain the most powerful actors in worldwill remain the most powerful actors in world
affairs, but the principal conflicts of global politicsaffairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics
will occur between nations and groups ofwill occur between nations and groups of
different civilizations. The clash of civilizationsdifferent civilizations. The clash of civilizations
will be the battle lines of the future.will be the battle lines of the future.
http://www.georgetown.edu/faculty/irvinem/CCT510/Sources/Huntingto
n-ClashofCivilizations-1993.html

28. Theories for what?Theories for what?
 Theories about intercultural communicationTheories about intercultural communication
hypothesize that when people of differenthypothesize that when people of different
cultures meet, they have four options (Kriegercultures meet, they have four options (Krieger
1991: 98; Wijsen 2003: 273):1991: 98; Wijsen 2003: 273):
 a. Some people identify strongly with the owna. Some people identify strongly with the own
religious culture. After meeting the other theyreligious culture. After meeting the other they
“jump back” to what is known to them.“jump back” to what is known to them.

29. b. Other people identify with the religiousb. Other people identify with the religious
culture of the other. They “cross over” toculture of the other. They “cross over” to
the other culture and forget about theirthe other culture and forget about their
own.own.
c. Again other people identify with none ofc. Again other people identify with none of
the religious cultures. They live in athe religious cultures. They live in a
“cultural no-man’s land”.“cultural no-man’s land”.
 d. But most people create an intermediated. But most people create an intermediate
set of beliefs and practices which offers aset of beliefs and practices which offers a
synthesis between the two.synthesis between the two.

30. ModelsModels
 In the literature three models of interculturalIn the literature three models of intercultural
communication and hermeneutics arecommunication and hermeneutics are
distinguished (Mall 2000; Sundermeier 2003: 70-distinguished (Mall 2000; Sundermeier 2003: 70-
72):72):
a. The “equality model”: This model stressesa. The “equality model”: This model stresses
“sameness”: The others are like us; all people“sameness”: The others are like us; all people
are equal.are equal.
b. The “alterity model”: This model stressesb. The “alterity model”: This model stresses
“otherness”: The others are not like us; they are“otherness”: The others are not like us; they are
strangers, potential enemies.strangers, potential enemies.
c. The “analogy model”: This model stressesc. The “analogy model”: This model stresses
“complementariness”. The others are like us but“complementariness”. The others are like us but
not the same.not the same.

31. Christian mission and InterculturalChristian mission and Intercultural
skillsskills
 This is true for communication researchers in theThis is true for communication researchers in the
Netherlands (Hofstede 1991, Pinto 1990, ShadidNetherlands (Hofstede 1991, Pinto 1990, Shadid
1998, Trompenaars 1993, Hamelink 1979, Vink1998, Trompenaars 1993, Hamelink 1979, Vink
2004) as well as for those in other countries2004) as well as for those in other countries
(Kincaid 1988, Gudykunst and Kim 1992; Kim(Kincaid 1988, Gudykunst and Kim 1992; Kim
2002), except for ‘applied’ theories of Christian2002), except for ‘applied’ theories of Christian
communication (Kraemer 1956, Nida 1960,communication (Kraemer 1956, Nida 1960,
Hesselgrave 1979, Kraft 1991). The presentHesselgrave 1979, Kraft 1991). The present
research program aims to bridge this gap.research program aims to bridge this gap.
http://www.ru.nl/nim/chair_for_missiology/research_programme/

32. New terms in MissionNew terms in Mission
Communi-actionCommuni-action
Spec-actorSpec-actor
Co-actorCo-actor

33. Methods of teaching across CulturesMethods of teaching across Cultures
Banking and Dialogic (Paulo Freire)Banking and Dialogic (Paulo Freire)
Crossing boundaries (Martin Buber – ICrossing boundaries (Martin Buber – I
thou relationship not I-it relationship)thou relationship not I-it relationship)
Respect and critique (Role of OrganicRespect and critique (Role of Organic
Intellectual -Intellectual - Gramsci)Gramsci)
Recognising and Bringing out meaningsRecognising and Bringing out meanings
within (Kierkegaard)within (Kierkegaard)

34. Cross Cultural skillsCross Cultural skills
 Willingness (Viruppu-TamilWillingness (Viruppu-Tamil
Words)Words)
 Contact (Thodarbu)Contact (Thodarbu)
 Relationship (Uravu)Relationship (Uravu)
 Understanding (Purivu)Understanding (Purivu)
 Courage (Thunivu)Courage (Thunivu)
 Humbleness(Panivu)Humbleness(Panivu)
 Kindness (Kanivu)Kindness (Kanivu)
De Nobili a Hinduized
Missionary

35. Cross Cultural teaching skillsCross Cultural teaching skills
Listen to the otherListen to the other
See the contextSee the context
Touch the handsTouch the hands
Observe the actsObserve the acts
Smell the fragranceSmell the fragrance
Feel the environmentFeel the environment
Think of good thingsThink of good things
Taste the foodTaste the food
Imagine the mind of the otherImagine the mind of the other

36. Cross Cultural starting pointsCross Cultural starting points
Misunderstanding leads to UnderstandingMisunderstanding leads to Understanding
Confusion leads to Fusion of culturesConfusion leads to Fusion of cultures
Unity is not uniformityUnity is not uniformity
Oneness is not samenessOneness is not sameness
Chaos is starting point of creationChaos is starting point of creation

37. Because these people broke theirBecause these people broke their
cultural barriers they could transformcultural barriers they could transform
the world!the world!
Egyptian Nurses in ExodusEgyptian Nurses in Exodus
Peter and Paul in the first ChristianPeter and Paul in the first Christian
Council in JerusalemCouncil in Jerusalem
Francis of AssisiFrancis of Assisi
Mahatma Gandhi and Nelson MandelaMahatma Gandhi and Nelson Mandela
Mother TheresaMother Theresa

38. Directions in Cross Cultural teachingDirections in Cross Cultural teaching
 Huntington Thesis 1992 – Clash of Civilizations -Huntington Thesis 1992 – Clash of Civilizations -
Grouping of culturesGrouping of cultures
 Edward Said – Clash of Ignorance betweenEdward Said – Clash of Ignorance between
cultural groupscultural groups
 Others not Monolithic groups – ratherOthers not Monolithic groups – rather
heterogeneous groups.heterogeneous groups.
 Each cultural group have a common origin isEach cultural group have a common origin is
questionable!questionable!
 Are we progressing towards a better world?Are we progressing towards a better world?