Motivation and Leadership

1. Motivation And Leadership
• Barsha Sharma
• Kamal Subedi
• Nisha Chalise
• Radhika Kandel
• Srijana Sharma
• Sujan Poudel
Group Members
Organizational Behavior

2. Motivation

3. Motivation
• Motivation is the set of forces that causes people to engage in
one behavior rather than some alternative behavior.
• But their goals are different.
• Managers strive to motivate people in the organization to
perform at high levels.
• But job performance depends on ability and environment as
well as motivation.
P = M+ A + E
Where,
P = Performance, M = Motivation,
A = Ability, and E = Environment:

4. Nature of Motivation
• Motivation is an internal feeling. It is basically a psychological
process.
• Motivation produces goal directed behavior.
• Motivation contains systems orientation.
• Motivation can be either negative or positive.

5. Motivation Process
Fig: Motivation Process, Source: Cengage Learning
• This framework provides
a useful way to see how
motivational processes
occur.
• When people experience
a need deficiency, they
seek ways to satisfy it,
which results in a choice
of goal-directed
behaviors.
• After performing the
behavior, the individual
experiences rewards or
punishments that affect
the original need
deficiency.

6. Types Of Motivation
• Positive or Incentive motivation
• Negative or fear motivation
• Extrinsic motivation
• Intrinsic motivation
• Self motivation or attitude motivation

7. Theories of Motivation
• Content Theories
– The theories of the motivation which explains the dynamics of
human needs, such as why people have different needs at
different times.
• Process Theories
– These theories do not directly explains how needs emerge.
Instead they describe the process through which the needs are
translated into behavior.

8. Content/Need Theories
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
• Alderfer’s ERG Theory
• Dual-Structure Theory (Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory)
• McClelland’s Theory of learned needs

9. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
• The hierarchy of needs, developed by psychologist Abraham
Maslow in the 1940s, is the best-known need theory.
• Maslow argued that human beings are “wanting” animals
• They have innate desires to satisfy a given set of needs.
• Furthermore, Maslow believed that these needs are arranged in
a hierarchy of importance, with the most basic needs at the
foundation of the hierarchy.

10. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

11. ERG Theory
• The ERG theory, developed by Yale psychologist Clayton
Alderfer, is another historically important need theory of
motivation.
• In many respects, ERG theory extends and refines Maslow’s
needs hierarchy concept, although there are also several
important differences between the two.
• The E, R, and G stand for three basic need categories:
existence, relatedness, and growth.
• Existence needs—those necessary for basic human survival—
roughly correspond to the physiological and security needs of
Maslow’s hierarchy.

12. ERG Theory
• Relatedness needs—those involving the need to relate to
others—are similar to Maslow’s belongingness and esteem
needs.
• Finally, growth needs are analogous to Maslow’s needs for
self-esteem and self-actualization.
• In contrast to Maslow’s approach, ERG theory suggests that
more than one kind of need
• for example, both relatedness and growth needs may motivate
a person at the same time.

13. Dual-Structure Theory
• This theory was originally called the “two-factor theory”
• This theory has played a major role in managerial thinking
about motivation, and though few researchers today accept the
theory, it is nevertheless widely known and accepted among
practicing managers.
• The dual-structure theory identifies motivation factors, which
affect satisfaction, and hygiene factors, which determine
dissatisfaction.

14. Dual-Structure Theory
• The traditional view of satisfaction suggested that satisfaction
and dissatisfaction were opposite ends of a single dimension.
• Herzberg’s dual structure theory found evidence of a more
complex view.
• In this theory, motivation factors affect one dimension, ranging
from satisfaction to no satisfaction.
• Other workplace characteristics, called “hygiene factors,” are
assumed to affect another dimension, ranging from
dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.

15. Dual-Structure Theory

16. McClelland's Theory
• Need for Affiliation
– Similar to the Maslow's social needs and Aldfer’s relatedness
needs. It is the desire to establish and maintain the friendly
relations with other people
• Need for Power
– This is the need to dominate, influence and control people
• Need for Achievement
– This is the need for challenge, personal accomplishment and
success in the competitive situations.

17. Process Theories of Motivation
• Equity Theory of Motivation
• Expectancy Theory of Motivation
• Reinforcement Theory

18. Equity Theory
• The equity theory of motivation is based on the relatively simple
premise that people in organizations want to be treated fairly.
• The theory defines equity as the belief that we are being treated
fairly in relation to others and inequity as the belief that we are
being treated unfairly compared with others.
• Equity theory is just one of several theoretical formulations derived
from social comparison processes. Social comparisons involve
evaluating our own situation in terms of others’ situations.
• It is the most highly developed of the social comparison approaches
and the one that applies most directly to the work motivation of
people in organizations.

19. Equity Model
Equity exists when employees perceive that the ratios of their inputs (efforts)
to their outcomes (rewards) are equivalent to the ratios of other similar
employees. Inequity exists when these ratios aren’t equivalent: An individual’s
own ratio of inputs to outcomes could be greater or less than that of others.
Fig: Equity Model, Source: Cengage Learning

20. Expectancy Theory
• Expectancy theory suggests that people are motivated by how
much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of
getting it.
– Effort-to-Performance Expectancy
• Effort-to-performance expectancy is a person’s perception of the
probability that effort will lead to performance.
– Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy
• Performance to- outcome expectancy is the individual’s perception
of the probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes.

21. Expectancy Theory
– Outcomes and Valences
• An outcome is anything that results from performing a particular
behavior.
• Valence is the degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness a
particular outcome has for a person
Fig: Expectancy Framework, Source: Cengage Learning

22. Reinforcement Theory
• In its simplest form, reinforcement theory suggests that behavior is a
function of its consequences.
• Behavior that results in pleasant consequences is more likely to be
repeated (the employee will be motivated to repeat the current
behavior),
• and behavior that results in unpleasant consequences is less likely to
be repeated (the employee will be motivated to engage in different
behaviors).
• Reinforcement theory also suggests that in any given situation,
people explore a variety of possible behaviors.
• Future behavioral choices are affected by the consequences of
earlier behaviors. Cognitions, as already noted, also play an
important role.
Note: Reinforcement can be Positive and Negative

23. Issues In Motivation
Motivating
Professionals
Motivating
contingent
workers
Motivating
diversified
workforce
Motivating low-
skilled service
workers
Motivating
people doing
highly repetitive
tasks

24. Issues In Motivation
• Motivating Professionals
– Managers cannot make organization competitive without
professionals
– So manager should provide the intrinsic (job challenge, support,
opportunity, recognition, autonomy, growth etc.) satisfaction to
professionals
• Motivating contingent workers
– Organizations are going through downsizing; merger and
acquisition and so on.
– As compared to permanent worker their job are not stable and
secure; so they are less committed to their work
– So, offering training opportunities
– Use internal source of recruitment at the time of vacancies
– Skill pay plan

25. Issues In Motivation
• Motivating the diversified workforce
– It refers to the heterogeneity of work force and demand for
special attention to special group of people
– Manager should keep in mind everyone are not motivated by
money and everyone does not want the challenging tasks
– For ex. The Technician of the company may prefers the
challenging tasks but the lower level employee may not.
– So, while giving rewards the payment may not be the choice to
the technician while the payment may be the choice of the lower
level employee so it is essential to identify the needs and
preferences of the diversified workforce.

26. Issues In Motivation
• Motivating low skilled service workers
– There is high turnover of the low skilled workers so,
– Manager should design the flexible work schedule; recruit the
teenagers and retires whose financial needs are less
– Creating the good working environment, making job more
interesting etc. can be beneficial.
• Motivating people doing highly repetitive tasks
– Generally the highly repetitive tasks are boring and monotonous
so the problem can be solved by,
– High pay as far as possible
– Attractive work surroundings
– Careful selection of the employee to prevent from high turnover.

27. Leadership

28. Leadership
• “Leadership is the ability to influencing a group toward the
achievement of goals.”
• Natures of Leadership
– it is the relationship between two or more people for some
common objective
– The essence of leadership if followership. There cannot be leader
without followers
– It is the something the leader does, not something s/he has
– It is an ability or art
– It is important part of management but not all of it.

29. Management Vs Leadership
Activity Management Leadership
Creating an
agenda
Planning and budgeting.
Establishing detailed steps and timetables for
achieving needed results; allocating the
resources necessary to make those needed
results happen
Establishing direction.
Developing a vision of the future, often the distant
future, and strategies for producing the changes needed
to achieve that vision
Developing a
human network
for achieving the
agenda
Organizing and staffing.
Establishing some structure for accomplishing
plan requirements, staffing that structure with
individuals, delegating responsibility and
authority for carrying out the plan, providing
policies and procedures to help guide people,
and creating methods or systems to monitor
implementation
Aligning people.
Communicating the direction by words and deeds to all
those whose cooperation may be needed to influence the
creation of teams and coalitions that understand the
vision and strategies and accept their validity
Executing plans Controlling and problem solving.
Monitoring results vs. plan in some detail,
identifying deviations, and then planning and
organizing to solve these problems
Motivating and inspiring.
Energizing people to overcome major political,
bureaucratic, and resource barriers to change by
satisfying very basic, but often unfulfilled, human needs
Outcomes Produces a degree of predictability and order
and has the potential to consistently produce
major results expected by various stakeholders
(e.g., for customers, always being on time; for
stockholders, being on budget)
Produces change, often to a dramatic degree, and has the
potential to produce extremely useful change (e.g., new
products that customers want, new approaches to labor
relations that help make a firm more competitive)
Source:HowLeadershipDiffersfromManagement,byJohnP.Kotter.

30. Leadership Style
• The behavior shown by a leader during supervision of
subordinates is known as leadership style.
• The different types of leadership styles are:
– Autocratic style
• A leader who is self centered is called autocratic style.
• He centralizes the power and decision making in him and exercises
the power.
• High frustrations, low morale and high conflicts are quite natural
• Subordinate try to avoid responsibility and they feel insecurity and
thereat.

31. Contd. Leadership Style
• Democratic Style
– This style gives equal focus to both work and people
– Subordinates are included in the decision making process
– high job satisfaction and job morale
– Feedback to coach employees
• Laissez-faire
– Just opposite to the autocratic style
– The leader does not lead but leaves the group entirely to itself
– Leader gives complete freedom to make decision on work
methods
– This style is also called paternalistic leadership; just like mature
father in family.

32. Leadership Theories
• Trait Theory
• Behavioral Theory
• Fielder’s Contingency Theory
• Path Goal Theory

33. Trait Theory
• The trait approach to leadership attempted to identify stable
and enduring character traits that differentiated effective
leaders from non leaders.
• “Leaders are born, not made” and leadership qualities are the
function of heredity
• Trait theories of leadership thus focus on personal qualities
and characteristics.
• Assumptions of trait theory
– By birth they possess the leadership skills
– They differs greatly from their followers in terms of important
leadership traits included intelligence, dominance, self-
confidence, energy, activity, and task-relevant knowledge.
– Trait remain unchanged across the time

34. Criticism of Trait Theory
• For example, one early argument was that effective leaders
such as Lincoln tended to be taller than ineffective leaders.
• But critics were quick to point out that Hitler and Napoleon,
both effective leaders in their own way, were not tall.
• Some writers have even tried to relate leadership to such traits
as body shape, astrological sign, or handwriting patterns.
• But, There is no universal list of traits to verify them

35. Behavioral Theories
• In the late 1940s, most researchers began to shift away from
the trait approach and started to look at leadership as an
observable process or activity.
• The goal of the so-called behavioral approach was to
determine what behaviors are associated with effective
leadership.
• The researchers assumed that the behaviors of effective leaders
differed somehow from the behaviors of less effective leaders
and that the behaviors of effective leaders would be the same
across all situations.
• The behavioral approach to the study of leadership included
the Michigan studies, the Ohio State studies, and the
leadership grid.

36. Behavioral Theories
• The Ohio State Studies
– The Ohio State leadership studies were conducted at about the
same time as the Michigan studies (in the late 1940s and early
1950s).
– Behavioral scientists at Ohio State University developed a
questionnaire, which they administered in both military and
industrial settings,
– The main aim of which is to assess subordinates’ perceptions of
their leaders’ behavior.
– The Ohio State studies identified several forms of leader
behavior but tended to focus on the two most significant ones:
• Consideration and
• Initiating-structure.

37. Behavioral Theories
• The Ohio State Studies
– When engaging in consideration behavior, the leader is
concerned with the subordinates’ feelings and respects
subordinates’ ideas.
– The leader-subordinate relationship is characterized by mutual
trust, respect, and two-way communication.
– When using initiating-structure behavior, on the other hand, the
leader clearly defines the leader subordinate roles so that
subordinates know what is expected of them.
– The leader also establishes channels of communication and
determines the methods for accomplishing the group’s task.

38. Behavioral Theories
• The Michigan Studies
– The Michigan leadership studies were a program of research
conducted at the University of Michigan.
– The goal of this work was to determine the pattern of leadership
behaviors that results in effective group performance.
– From interviews with supervisors and subordinates of high- and
low-productivity groups in several organizations, the researchers
collected and analyzed descriptions of supervisory behavior to
determine how effective supervisors differed from ineffective
ones.
– Two basic forms of leader behavior were identified
• Job-centered and
• Employee-centered

39. Behavioral Theories
• The Michigan Studies
– Job-centered leader behavior involves paying close attention to the
work of subordinates, explaining work procedures, and
demonstrating a strong interest in performance.
– The leader who engages in employee-centered leader behavior
attempts to build effective work groups with high performance
goals.
– The leader’s main concern is with high performance, but that is to
be achieved by paying attention to the human aspects of the group.
– These two styles of leader behavior were presumed to be at
opposite ends of a single dimension.
– Thus, the Michigan researchers suggested that any given leader
could exhibit either job-centered or employee-centered leader
behavior, but not both at the same time.

40. Behavioral Theories
• The Leadership Grid
– The Leadership Grid is a method of evaluating leadership styles.
The overall objective of an organization using the Grid is to train
its managers using organizational development techniques so
that they are simultaneously more concerned for both people and
production.
– It is believed that leaders who exhibit high levels of both
behaviors would be most effective.
– But employees of supervisors who ranked high on initiating-
structure behavior were higher performers but also expressed
lower levels of satisfaction.
– Conversely, employees of supervisors who ranked high on
consideration had lower performance ratings but also had fewer
absences from work.

41. Behavioral Theories

42. Fielder’s Contingency Theory
• The Fiedler contingency model proposes that effective group
performance depends on the proper match between the
leader’s style and the degree to which the situation gives the
leader control.
Assumptions:
There is no one best style of
leadership universally applicable
to all situations.

43. Fielder’s Contingency Theory
• Least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire
– Determines leadership style by measuring responses to 18 pairs
of contrasting adjectives.
• High score: a relationship-oriented leadership style
• Low score: a task-oriented leadership style
• Situational factors in matching leader to the situation:
– Leader-member relations
– Task structure
– Position power

44. Path Goal Theory
• The path-goal theory of leadership suggests that effective
leaders clarify the paths (behaviors) that will lead to desired
rewards (goals).
• The path-goal theory of leadership specifies four kinds of
leader behavior: directive, supportive, participative, and
achievement oriented.
• Leaders are advised to vary their behaviors in response to such
situational factors as personal characteristics of subordinates
and environmental characteristics.

45. Path Goal Theory
Directive leadership, the
leader lets subordinates
know what is expected
of them, gives specific
guidance as to how to
accomplish tasks,
schedules work to be
done, and maintains
definitive standards of
performance for
subordinates.
Supportive leadership is
friendly and shows
concern for
subordinates’ status,
well-being, and needs.
Participative leadership, the leader consults with subordinates
about issues and takes their suggestions into account before
making a decision.
Achievement oriented leadership involves setting challenging
goals, expecting subordinates to perform at their highest level, and
showing strong confidence that subordinates will put forth
effort and accomplish the goals.

46. Emerging Issues in Leadership
• Male vs female leadership
• Team leadership
• Leading through empowerment
• Followership
• National culture
• Biological basis of leadership
• Moral dimension to leadership
• Leadership and Emotional intelligence
• Leadership and Trust

47. Thank You 