2. A strategic approach to people
management that focuses on the issues
that are critical to an organization's success
◦ Greater transparency on how value is created
through effective people policies and
practices will benefit organizations and their
stakeholders.
3. These personal assets are highly interrelated and have
implications for both individuals and organizations:
Intellectual Capital
Emotional Capital
Social Capital
It form the basis for strong and supportive
relationships and for developing the courage and grit
necessary for entrepreneurship and taking action.
4. Is at the heart of individual development
The creation of knowledge and personal
value.
Enables the exercise of choice.
5. Enables the continual growth
Enables fulfillment of ambition
Maintained through self awareness and
insight.
6. Arises from the forging of relationships
Traditional hierarchical roles and
responsibilities vs integrated structures and
relationships of trust and reciprocity
7. Content Theories
◦ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory
◦ Alderfer’s Modified Need Hierarchy Model
◦ Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory (Motivation-Hygiene
Theory)
◦ McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory
Process (Extrinsic) Theories
◦ Expectancy Theories
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
The Porter and Lawler Expectancy Model
◦ Equity Theory
◦ Goal Theory
◦ Attribution Theory
8. Maslow’s theory –
Hierarchy of
needs (triangle)
Lower needs
must be satisfied
before higher
needs motivates
Once a need is
substantially met,
it no longer
motivates
The motivation-
hygiene theory
put forward by
Herzberg is a
development of
Maslow’s theory.
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9. The model condenses Maslow’s 5-levels of need
into 3-levels based on the core needs of:
◦ Existence – concerned with sustaining human existence
and survival and cover physiological and safety needs of
a material nature.
◦ Relatedness – concerned with relationships to the social
environment and cover love or belonging, affiliation and
meaningful interpersonal relationships of a safety or
esteem nature.
◦ Growth – concerned with the development of potential
and cover self-esteem and self-actualization.
Thus, ERG Theory
10. Also known as Herzberg's motivation-hygiene
theory
Motivating factors creating job satisfaction:
achievement, recognition, personal growth
(advancement), responsibility, challenging work.
Hygiene factors creating job dissatisfaction:
supervision, company policy, salary, relationship
with peers or supervisors, working condition
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11. This theory suggests that to improve job
attitudes and productivity, administrators
must recognize and attend to both sets of
characteristics and not assume that an
increase in satisfaction leads to a decrease
in an un-pleasurable dissatisfaction.
Hygiene factors are needed to ensure an
employee is not dissatisfied.
Motivation factors are needed in order to
motivate an employee to higher
performance.
12. If management wishes to increase satisfaction
on the job, it should concerned with the nature
of the work itself – the opportunities it presents
for gaining status, assuming responsibility and
for achieving self-realization.
But, if management wishes to reduce
dissatisfaction, then it must focus on the job
environment (policies, procedures, supervision
& working conditions).
If management is equally concerned with both,
then managers must give attention to both sets
of job factors.
14. McClelland’s work originated from
investigations into the relationship between
hunger needs and the extent to which imagery
of food dominated thought processes
He identified 4 main arousal-based, and
socially developed needs or motives:
1. The achievement motive correspond to
2. The power motive Maslow’s S-A,
3. The affiliative motive esteem & love needs
4. The avoidance motive
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15. A need to achieve
- A person with this type of need, will set goals that
are challenging but realistic.
A need for power
- The need to lead others and make an impact.
- Socialized power: directed more towards the
organization and concern for group goals. Is
exercised on behalf of other people
- Personalized power: characterized by satisfaction
from exercising dominance over the people, and
personal enhancement.
A need for affiliation
- The need for friendly relationships and human
interaction.
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16. The relative intensity of these motives
varies:
◦ Between individuals
◦ Between different occupations
Managers appear to be higher in
achievement motivation than in affiliation
motivation
n-Ach is seen as the most critical for a
country’s economic growth and success
◦ Linked to entrepreneurial spirit and the
development of available resources
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17. Underlying basis of expectancy theory:
People are influenced by the expected results of
their actions.
Motivation is a function of the relationship
between:
◦ Effort expended and perceived level of performance
◦ The expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) will be
related to performance.
There must also be:
◦ The expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) are
available
These relationships determine the strength of
the ‘motivational link’
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19. Performance depends upon the perceived
expectation regarding effort expended and achieving
the desired outcome.
◦ The desire for promotion will result in high performance
only if the person believes there is a strong expectation
that this will lead to promotion.
◦ If otherwise the person believes promotion to be based
solely on age and length of service, there is no motivation
to achieve high performance.
A person’s behavior reflects a conscious choice
between the comparative evaluation of alternative
behaviors.
The choice of behavior is based on the expectancy of
the most favorable consequences.
KAM3033-TOPIC 6
20. Was the first person to propose an expectancy
theory aimed specifically at work motivation.
Also known as VIE theory or valence theory.
Under ET, an individual chooses behavior;
◦ On the basis of probabilities perceived
◦ On the benefits, personal utilities or satisfaction that can
be derived from the outcomes
Individuals should be rewarded with what he/she
perceives as important rather than what the
manager perceives
KAM3033-TOPIC 6
21. Vroom argued that in order for a person to be
motivated, the effort, performance and motivation
must be linked.
Three important variables:
◦ Valence – anticipated value
◦ Instrumentality
◦ Expectancy.
The theory is founded on the idea that people
prefer certain outcomes from their behavior over
others.
◦ They anticipate feelings of satisfaction should the preferred
outcome be achieved.
22. Valence is the feeling about or the importance that the
individual places upon the expected outcomes.
◦ (the attractiveness of, the preference for, a particular outcome
to the individual)
E.g. If I am mainly motivated by money, I might not
value offers of additional time off.
A person may desire an object but then gain little
satisfaction from obtaining it.
Alternatively, a person may strive to avoid an object, but
find, subsequently, that it provides satisfaction.
Thus, valence is the anticipated satisfaction from an
outcome.
Whereas value is the actual satisfaction provided by an
outcome.
23. Instrumentality is the belief that if you
perform well, a valued outcome will be
received: i.e. if I do a good job, there is
something in it for me.
The valence of outcomes derives from their
instrumentality.
This leads to a distinction between:
◦ First level outcomes
◦ Second-level outcomes
24. First level outcomes
◦ Are performance-related
◦ Refer to the quantity of output or to the comparative level
of performance
◦ Some people may seek to perform well ‘for its own sake’
and without thought to expected consequences of their
actions.
◦ Usually however, performance outcomes acquire valence
because of the expectation that they will lead to other
outcomes as an anticipated source of satisfaction i.e.
second-level outcomes.
25. Second level outcomes
◦ Are need-related
◦ Derived through achievement of first-level
outcomes i.e. through achieving high-
performance.
◦ Many need-related outcomes are dependent
upon actual performance rather than effort
expended.
◦ People generally received rewards for what
they have achieved rather than for effort
alone or through trying hard.
26. Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will
lead to increased performance: i.e. if I work harder
then this will be better achieved.
When a person chooses between alternative
behaviors which have uncertain outcomes, the
choice is affected by:
◦ The preference for a particular outcome;
◦ The probability that such an outcome will be achieved.
People develop a perception of the degree of
probability that the choice of a particular action will
actually lead to the desired outcome this is
expectancy.
27. It is the relationship between a chosen course of
action and its predicted outcome.
Its value ranges between 0, indicating zero
probability that an action will be followed by the
outcome, and 1, indicating certainty that an action
will result in the outcome.
The combination of valence and expectancy
determines a person’s motivation for a given form
of behavior. This is termed as motivational force.
29. Developed from Vroom’s expectancy theory
The model goes beyond motivational force
and considers performance as a whole.
Pointed out that effort expended
(motivational force):
◦ does not lead directly to performance;
◦ is mediated by :
individual abilities and traits;
The person’s role perceptions.
Introduce rewards as an intervening variable
30. See motivation, satisfaction and performance
as separate variables and attempt to explain
the complex relationships among them.
Recognizes that job satisfaction is more
dependent upon performance, than
performance is upon satisfaction.
◦ i.e. performance determines job satisfaction
◦ And not job satisfaction that determines
performance (human relations approach)
31. The Porter and Lawler motivation
model
Valence
expectancy
Desirable
outcomes
32. The attractiveness of alternative behaviors is
dependent on 2 types of expectancies :
◦ Effort-performance expectancies (E P)
A person’s perception of the probability that a given amount
of effort will result in achieving an intended level of
performance
Measured on a scale between 0 and 1
The closer the relationship between effort and performance,
the higher the E P expectancy score.
◦ Performance-outcome expectancies (P O)
A person’s perception of the probability that a given level of
performance will actually lead to particular need-related
outcomes.
Measured on a scale between 0 and 1.
The closer the perceived relationship between performance
and outcome, the higher the P O expectancy score.
34. Managers should:
Use rewards appropriate in terms of individual
performance. Outcomes with high valence
should be used as an incentive for improved
performance.
Attempt to establish clear relationships between
effort-performance and rewards, as perceived by
the individual.
Establish clear procedures for the evaluation of
individual levels of performance.
35. Managers should:
Pay attention to intervening variables such as abilities
and traits, roles perceptions, organizational
procedures and support facilities, which, may affect
performance, even though indirectly.
Minimize undesirable outcomes which may be
perceived to result from a high level of performance
such as industrial accidents or sanctions from co-
workers, or to result despite a high level of
performance such as short-time working or layoffs.
36. Focuses on people’s feelings of how fairly they
have been treated in comparison with the
treatment received by others.
It is based on exchange theory, as social
relationships involve an exchange process.
Most exchanges involve a number of inputs and
outcomes.
People is said to place a weighting on these
various inputs and outcomes according to how
they perceive their importance.
When there is an unequal comparison of ratios,
the person experiences a sense of inequity.
Each theory explain slight variations of behaviour not explained by others
Eg; Maslow indicates workers will work for basic needs such as pay before demanding an air-conditioned workplace or safer working.
Eg; Expectancy theory dictates rewards/punishment must be clearly defined, strong enough to motivate.
Unsatisfactory hygiene factors can act as de-motivators.
However, if satisfactory, the motivational effect of the hygiene factors is limited.
The psychology of motivation is quite complex. Herzberg has exploded several myths about motivators such as:
Shorter working week, increasing wages, fringe benefits, sensitivity / human relations training, communication.
