1. ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT (PMB 316)
TERM PAPAR ON
GLOBAL CARBON EMISSION
SUBMITTED FOR PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF AWARD OF
MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
BY
MAYANK MITTAL
ROLL NO: 501204021
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
DR. RUDRA RAMESHWAR
2013

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GLOBAL CARBON EMISSIONS
ABSTRACT
Mangroves are among the most threatened and rapidly disappearing natural environments
worldwide. In addition to supporting a wide range of other ecological and economic
functions, mangroves store considerable carbon. Here, we consider the global economic
potential for protecting mangroves based exclusively on their carbon. We develop unique
high-resolution global estimates (5′ grid, about 9 × 9 km) of the projected carbon emissions
from mangrove loss and the cost of avoiding the emissions. Using these spatial estimates, we
derive global and regional supply curves (marginal cost curves) for avoided emissions. Under
a broad range of assumptions, we find that the majority of potential emissions from
mangroves could be avoided of CO2. Given the recent range of market price for carbon
offsets and the cost of reducing emissions from other sources, this finding suggests that
protecting mangroves for their carbon is an economically viable proposition. Political-
economy considerations related to the ability of doing business in developing countries,
however, can severely limit the supply of offsets and increases their price per ton. We also
find that although a carbon-focused conservation strategy does not automatically target areas
most valuable for biodiversity, implementing a biodiversity-focused strategy would only
slightly increase the costs.
INTRODUCTION
Extraction, processing and delivery of aggregates require adequate supplies of energy. Most
has come from burning of coal, oil and natural gas which give rise to gaseous carbon
emissions (principally carbon dioxide, CO2, and carbon monoxide, CO) and contribute to
increases in global atmospheric temperature. Steep increases in overall carbon emissions
during the 20th C. raised concerns about climate change. International action was sought to
address this. All sources of aggregates (land won, marine dredged materials, recycled,
industrial by-products and imported) contribute to carbon emissions so there is a need to
compare the relative levels of emissions from production of each as part of considering a
low-carbon economy.
The Climate Change Act 2008 introduced a long-term framework for action in the United
Kingdom that introduced legally binding carbon budgets that would set a ceiling on the levels
of greenhouse gases that can be emitted into the atmosphere. The Act requires that emissions
are reduced by at least 80% by 2050 compared to 1990 levels. It also set up an independent

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Committee on Climate Change, the first report from which advised on the levels of these
budgets for the first three 5 year periods.
A Low Carbon Transition Plan set out how the UK will cut CO2 emissions by more than a
third from 1990 levels by 2020, following a 21% reduction that had been achieved already.
The strategy called for around 50% yearly emissions cuts between now and 2011 by making
the energy mix "more green". Government also expected 40% of the energy used to come
from low-carbon sources, 30% from renewable energy sources, and the remainder from
nuclear and "clean coal" provision. All parts of society and industry were required to play a
part in achieving this. These provisions are being reviewed by the Government elected to
office in 2010.
SOURCES OF EMISSION
The aggregates industry uses energy in several ways:
 fuel for on-site drilling, excavation and haulage vehicles, or at sea for shipping and dredging;
 wheel and road washing;
 processing plant used for crushing and grading materials;
 conveyors, extractor fans and dewatering and liquid waste pumps;
 lighting;
 heating and other facilities for buildings including workshops, offices and messing facilities;
 fuel for transportation of materials from the quarry gate to the user and used in deliveries of
materials to the quarry; and
 operation of plant producing value added products such as ready mixed concrete and asphalt
coated stone. For instance, ready mixed concrete consists of aggregate bound by cement.
Cement has a relatively high carbon "burden" because it is made by burning limestone or
chalk (calcium carbonate), with a high energy input releasing carbon dioxide from these.
CARBON EMISSION BY FUEL
In 2010, 43% of CO2 emissions from fuel combustion were produced from coal, 36% from
oil and 20% from gas. Growth of these fuels in 2010 was quite different, reflecting varying
trends that are expected to continue.Between 2009 and 2010, CO2 emissions from the
combustion of coal increased by 4.9% and represented 13.1 GtCO2. Currently, coal fills
much of the growing energy demand of those developing countries (such as China and India)
where energy-intensive industrial production is growing rapidly and large coal reserves exist
with limited reserves of other energy sources. Without additional abatement measures, the
WEO 2012 projects that emissions from coal will grow to 15.3 GtCO2 in 2035. However,
adopting a pathway towards limiting the long-term temperature increase to 2°C as in the

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WEO 2012 450 Scenario – through use of more efficient plants and end-use technologies as
well as increased use of renewables, nuclear and carbon capture and storage (CCS)
technologies – could see coal consumption drop and CO2 emissions from coal reduced to 5.6
Gt by 2035. Energy Technology Perspectives 2012 (ETP 2012) also shows that intensified
use of coal would substantially increase CO2 emissions unless there was a very widespread
deployment of CCS.
CARBON EMISSION BY REGION
Between 2009 and 2010, CO2 emissions increased in all regions except Africa, however,
growth rates varied among regions. As mentioned earlier, CO2 emissions from non-Annex I
countries grew by 5.6%, while those of Annex I countries rose by a more modest 3.3%,
having decreased in 2009. As a result,the gap between the aggregate emissions of non- Annex
I countries and Annex I countries continued togrow.At the regional level (Figure 3), between
2009 and 2010, CO2 emissions increased significantly in Latin America (6.5%), Asia
excluding China (6.1%) and China (6.0%). CO2 emissions increased at a lower rate in Annex
II regions, ranging from 2.1% in Annex II Europe to 3.4% in Annex II North America.
CARBON EMISSION BY SECTOR
Two sectors produced nearly two-thirds of global CO2 emissions in 2010: electricity and heat
generation accounted for 41% while transport produced 22%.Generation of electricity and
heat was by far the largestproducer of CO2 emissions and was responsible for 41% of world
CO2 emissions in 2010. Worldwide, this sector relies heavily on coal, the most
carbonintensive of fossil fuels, amplifying its share in global emissions. Countries such as
Australia, China, India, Poland and South Africa produce between 68% and94% of their
electricity and heat through the combustion of coal. The second-largest sector in terms of
emissions represented 22% of global CO2 emissions in 2010, reflecting an increase of 3.0%
between 2009 and 2010. Almost three-quarters of the emissions from transport were due to
road.
CARBON EMISSION FROM LAND USE CHANGE
CO2 emissions from deforestation and other land-use change were 0.9±0.5 PgC in 2011. For
the period 2002-2011, land-use change emissions accounted for 10% of all emissions from
human activity (fossil fuel, cement, land-use change). The data suggest an overall decrease
trend in land-use change emissions particularly since 2000. The implementation of new land
policies, higher law enforcement to stop illegal deforestation, and new a forestation and
regrowth of previously deforested areas could all have contributed to this decline. Total

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emissions from human activity in 2011 (fossil fuel, cement, land-use change) were 10.4±0.7
PgC. Emissions from land-use change were 36% of the total human emissions in 1960, 18%
in 1990, and 9% in 2011. Uncertainty for all land-use change emission estimates remains
large. CO2 emissions from land-use change are mainly based on forest statistics of the Food
and Agriculture Organization and a bookkeeping method, and include interannual variability
in deforestations based on fire activity from year 1997 onwards.
CARBON EMISSION IN INDIA
India emits more than 5% of global CO2 emissions and shows a clear trend of rapid increase:
CO2 emissions have almost tripled between 1990 and 2010. The WEO 2012 New Policies
Scenario projects that CO2 emissions in India increase by 3.5% per year from 2010 to 2035,
at which time India would account for 10% of global emissions. A large share of these
emissions are produced by the electricity and heat sector, which represented 54% of CO2 in
2010, up from 40% in 1990. CO2 emissions in the transport sector accounted for only 10% of
total emissions in 2010, but transport is one of the fastest-growing sectors.In 2010, 68% of
electricity in India came from coal,12% from natural gas and 3% from oil (Figure 22).The
share of fossil fuels in the generation mix grew from 73% in 1990 to 85% in 2002. Since
2002 theshare of fossil fuels remained fairly steady, representing 83% in 2010. Although
electricity produced fromhydro has actually risen during this period, the share fell from 25%
in 1990 to 12% in 2010, largely due tomore rapid increases in coal-fired generation.
Of the BRICS countries, India has the lowest CO2 emissions per capita (1.4 tCO2 in
2010), about one third that of the world average. Due to the recent large increases in
emissions, however, the Indian ratio is more than two times that of its ratio in 1990 and will
continue to grow. In 2035, India is projected to be the world‘s most populous nation with 1.5
billion people. Yet according to the WEO 2012 New PoliciesScenario, its carbon emissions of
2.5 tCO2 per capita will still be substantially lower than the world average of 4.3 tCO2 per
capita in the same year. In terms of CO2/GDP, India has continuously improved the
efficiency of its economy and reduced the CO2 emissions per unit of GDP by 22% between
1990 and 2010. India aims to further reduce emissions intensity of GDP by 20% to 25% by
2020 compared with the 2005 level.

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CARBON FOOTPRINT
A carbon footprint is the measure of the amount of greenhouse gases, measured in units of
carbon dioxide, produced by human activities. A carbon footprint can be measured for an
individual or an organization, and is typically given in tons of CO2-equivalent (CO2-eq) per
year. For example, the average North American generates about 20 tons of CO2-eq each year.
The global average carbon footprint is about 4 tons of CO2-eq per year. Anindividuals or
organization‘s carbon footprint can be broken down into the primary and secondary footprints.
The primary footprint is the sum of direct emissions of greenhouse gases from the burning of
fossil fuels for energyconsumption and transportation. More fuel-efficient cars have a smaller
primary footprint, as do energy-efficient light bulbs in your home or office. Worldwide, 82%
of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are in the form of CO2 from fossil
fuel combustion .The secondary footprint is the sum of indirect emissions of greenhouse gases
during the lifecycle of products used by an individual or organization. For example, the
greenhouse gases emitted during the production of plastic for water bottles, as well as the
energy used to transport the water contributes to the secondary carbon footprint. Products with
more packaging will generally have a larger secondary footprint than products with a minimal
amount of packaging.
GREENHOUSE GASES AND GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Although carbon footprints are reported in annual tons of CO2 emissions, they actually are a
measure of total greenhouse gas emissions. A greenhouse gas is any gas that traps heat in the
atmosphere through the greenhouse effect. Because of the presence of greenhouse gases in
our atmosphere the average temperature of the Earth is 14 ºC (57 ºF). Without the greenhouse
effect, the average temperature of the atmosphere would be -19 ºC (-2.2 ºF).
Many greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and water, occur
naturally. Other greenhouse gases, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydro fluorocarbons
(HFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) are synthetic. Since the
beginning of the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, both
natural and man-made, have been increasing. Burning fossil fuels and land-use changes such
as deforestation interfere with the natural carbon, moving carbon from its solid form to the
gaseous state, thus increasing atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide.
There are many ways for individuals and organizations to reduce their carbon footprint, such
as driving less, using energy efficient appliances, and buying local, organic foods as well as
products with less packaging. The purchase of carbon offsets is another way to reduce a
carbon footprint. One carbon offset represents the reduction of one ton of CO2-eq. Companies
who sell carbon offsets invest in projects such as renewable energy research, agricultural and
landfill gas capture, and tree-planting.
Critics of carbon offsets argue they will be used to absolve any guilt over maintaining
―business as usual‖ in our lifestyles. Additionally, the current offset market is voluntaryand

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largely unregulated, raising the possibility that companies will defraud customers seeking to
reduce their carbon footprint.
EMISSIONS TRADING
Emissions trading schemes provide a financial incentive for organizations and corporations to
reduce their carbon footprint. Such schemes exist under cap-and-trade systems, where the
total carbon emissions for a particular country, region, or sector are capped at a certain value,
and organizations are issued permits to emit a fraction of the total emissions. Organizations
that emit less carbon than their emission target can then sell their ―excess‖ carbon emissions.
This market mechanism is expected to bring down the costs of meeting emissions targets.
CO2 AND ENERGY IN THE CONTEXT OF TOTAL GHG EMISSIONS
This report focuses primarily on CO2 from anthropogenic energy transformation processes,
but it is nonetheless useful initially to see both energy and CO2 in the context of total global
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The source of most of the figures that follow is the Climate
Analysis Indicators Tool (World Resources Institute, 2008).
CO2 is the single most important greenhouse gas in terms of current emissions, accounting
for over three-quarters of annual emissions in terms of CO2eq. The next most important
GHG directly emitted through anthropogenic processes are methane and nitrous oxide. While
methane is emitted during the extraction and use of fossil fuels, the main sources are in
agriculture and land use change, so it is reasonable to exclude these from further discussion in
an analysis based on the energy sub-sectors.

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THE CURRENT SITUATION IN GLOBAL CO2 EMISSIONS
The sectors used are the main sectors and sub-sectors defined in IPCC Guidelines, as follows:
 Energy sectors include all emissions arising from the transformation of energy,
principally through the burning of fossil fuels, as follows:
 Electricity and Heat produced in power plant but then delivered to end users mainly
for domestic or industrial purposes. This category is mainly electricity generation, but
also includes CHP (Combined Heat and Power) and heat-only plant, plus emissions
from plant in other energy supply industries (e.g. oil refineries).
 Manufacturing and Construction includes all emissions arising from direct energy
transformation in the specified industries, including fuels burnt for process heat or
mechanical power.
 Transportation covers primarily oil products consumed in road vehicles and trains,
although domestic aviation and some coastal and inland shipping are also included.
International shipping and aviation are excluded (see below).
 Other Fuel Combustion includes emissions from fuels consumed directly, and
mainly for space and water heating, in sectors other than manufacturing and
construction (i.e. residential, commercial, agriculture, etc).
 Fugitive Emissions are GHG (mainly CO2 and methane) emitted directly to the
atmosphere during the extraction of fossil fuels.
 Other sectors are a heterogeneous group primarily as follows:
 Industrial Processes include emissions arising from industrial production other than
through energy use. A major component of this category is CO2 that is liberated when
limestone is converted into cement.
 Land Use Change and Forestry is a very important category covering a range of
sources (and some sinks) of greenhouse gases. In particular it reflects large quantities
of CO2 and methane emitted when natural land uses (forestry, permanent grassland,
wetland, etc) are converted for other uses such as agriculture.

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 International Bunkers are included in ‗other secors‘ to reflect their special status
under the UNFCCC regime. However, as they represent emissions from the burning
of bunker fuels in international shipping and aviation, they should in practice be
bracketed under energy, and within that, under transport.
Global Emissions by Gas
At the global scale, the key greenhouse gases emitted by human activities are:
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) - Fossil fuel use is the primary source of CO2. The way in
which people use land is also an important source of CO2, especially when it involves
deforestation. Land can also remove CO2 from the atmosphere through reforestation,
improvement of soils, and other activities.
 Methane (CH4) - Agricultural activities, waste management, and energy use all
contribute to CH4emissions.
 Nitrous oxide (N2O) - Agricultural activities, such as fertilizer use, are the primary
source of N2O emissions.
 Fluorinated gases (F-gases) - Industrial processes, refrigeration, and the use of a
variety of consumer products contribute to emissions of F-gases, which include hydro
fluorocarbons (HFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).

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Global Emissions by Source
Global greenhouse gas emissions can also be broken down by the economic activities that
lead to their production.
 Energy Supply (26% of 2004 global greenhouse gas emissions) - The burning of
coal, natural gas, and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of
global greenhouse gas emissions.
 Industry (19% of 2004 global greenhouse gas emissions) - Greenhouse gas
emissions from industry primarily involve fossil fuels burned on-site at facilities for
energy. This sector also includes emissions from chemical, metallurgical, and
mineral transformation processes not associated with energy consumption. (Note:
Emissions from electricity use are excluded and are instead covered in the Energy
Supply sector.)
 Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (17% of 2004 global greenhouse gas
emissions) - Greenhouse gas emissions from this sector primarily include carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions from deforestation, land clearing for agriculture, and fires
or decay of peat soils. This estimate does not include the CO2 that ecosystems
remove from the atmosphere. The amount of CO2 that is removed is subject to large
uncertainty, although recent estimates indicate that on a global scale, ecosystems on
land remove about twice as much CO2 as is lost by deforestation. [2]
 Agriculture (14% of 2004 GHG emissions) - global greenhouse gas emissions) -
Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture mostly come from the management of
agricultural soils, livestock, rice production, and biomass burning.
 Commercial and Residential Buildings (8% of 2004 global greenhouse gas
emissions) - Greenhouse gas emissions from this sector arise from on-site energy
generation and burning fuels for heat in buildings or cooking in homes. (Note:
Emissions from electricity use are excluded and are instead covered in the Energy
Supply sector.)
 Waste and Wastewater (3% of 2004 global greenhouse gas emissions) - The
largest source of greenhouse gas emissions in this sector is landfill methane (CH4),
followed by wastewater methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). Incineration of
some waste products that were made with fossil fuels, such as plastics and synthetic
textiles, also results in minor emissions of CO2.

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Global Carbon Emission Reduction Technologies
The potential consequences of global warming, many industrialized countries, principally in
Europe, havecalled for either a freeze or a 20 percent reduction in carbon dioxide emissions
by the developed world by the year2000 or shortly thereafter; several have pledged to freeze
or reduce emissions whether or not the rest of the world participates. In the United States,
Congress asked its Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) to evaluate the potential for
reductions in carbon dioxide emissions in the United States, which is responsible for about 20
percent of the global total.
Buildings
This sector is at once the richest in potential reductions and the most difficult to tap.
Relatively few buildings exploit state-of-the-art energy efficiencies; many, if not most, were
built when energy was cheap. The building sector encompasses a multitude of areas where
the amount of energy consumed—and thus the amount of carbon released can be lowered.
These range from design and construction (for example, the arrangement of the walls and
windows and the materials used) to furnishings (the choice of lights and appliances.
In the building sector, by 2015 our moderate package could achieve carbon reductions
equal to 13 % of current total U.S. carbon emissions (which are running about 1.4 billion tons
a year). The tough package could bring emissions down by 22 % of the current total. In new
residential land commercial buildings, for instance, better insulation, tighter windows, and
improved construction methods to lower heating and cooling needs can reduce total U.S.
emissions of carbon by about 6 percent of the current total by 2015. (About two-thirds of this
potential exists in commercial buildings and the remainder in houses.) The retrofitting of
existing buildings offers additional, but smaller, opportunities for carbon reductions. More
efficient heating and cooling equipment, water heaters, and appliances can bring total U.S.
emissions down by about 5 % by 2015. The potential from improved lighting (particularly in
commercial buildings) is almost as great.

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Identifying promising technical measures is one thing; drafting policies to bring about their
adoption is a much more challenging task. A tax on carbon emissions will certainly
encourage their reduction by sending price signals to reduce energy consumption. But a tax
alone is insufficient. Because there are so many different decision makers—contractors,
construction companies, landlords, tenants, and homeowners —a larger arsenal of policy
instruments is needed. A combination of financial incentives to pursue efficiency coupled
with disincentives for high energy use—the ―carrot and stick‖ approach—can be particularly
effective.
Demand-side management
This refers to electric utility programs designed to encourage customers to modify
their patterns of energy use. Energy conservation is allowed to compete with construction of
new power plants as an investment option for utilities trying to balance energy supply and
demand. Utilities can then fund efforts to improve building shells or the equipment inside
buildings. In some cases, utilities pay for rebate programs, give out high efficiency light
bulbs, or otherwise stimulate end-use efficiency improvements, and in so doing save energy
at a fraction of the cost of new power supplies. There is already considerable support for
demand-side management by many state energy offices, state legislatures, and public utility
commissions. The key to success is for state public service commissions to allow utilities to
profit from demand-side investments.
Further, the federal government could mandate that environmental consequences be
considered when public utility commissions evaluate new sources of electricity. For example,
New York State includes an estimate of the costs of environmental damage that would accrue
from a new coal-fired power plant when it calculates the total cost of that supply option.
Congress has already mandated, in the 1980 Pacific Northwest Electric Power Planning and
Conservation Act (Public Law 96–501), that the Northwest Power Planning Council adopt
rate structures that give conservation measures a cost break over other more traditional
supply-side measures.
Technology-specific regulations. Congress can mandate improvements in efficiency through
measures such as appliance standards and energy codes for buildings. The National
Appliance Energy Conservation Act, which sets minimum efficiency standards for
appliances such as refrigerators, home air conditioners, furnaces, and water heaters, is
expected to lower residential energy use by as much as 10 percent by the year 2000.
However, even stricter standards are possible using currently available technologies.
Congress could also consider extending standards to other equipment such as commercial
heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning equipment; lighting; and building components such
as windows. Energy-related building codes serve a function analogous to that of appliance
standards by preventing the construction of very inefficient buildings. However, building
codes have traditionally been under the jurisdiction of states and localities.
Although a mandatory national building code could reduce carbon emissions
significantly, it currently lacks the necessary political support from states and the
construction industry.

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Consumer information and marketing programs
Uncertainty and lack of information have been identified as key barriers to greater
investment in energy conservation in the building sector. The large number of highly cost
effective investments in energy efficiency that are not chosen by consumers indicates that
price alone doesn‘t stimulate optimal investment decisions. Requiring utilities to offer energy
audits or requiring home energy ratings as a condition of federally financed mortgages are
two ways to improve consumer knowledge of energy use.
Transportation
In the transportation sector, the moderate package promises a 4 percent reduction in U.S.
carbon emissions from the current total by 2015; with the tough package the reduction could
be 15 percent. The biggest reductions come from fuel efficiency improvements in cars and
trucks and getting more people into vans, buses, or mass transit. If consumers maintain their
current preference for mid-size cars with powerful engines, an aggressive pursuit by
manufacturers of technical improvements could yield new-car efficiencies of 39 miles per
gallon (mpg) by 2000 and 55 mpg by 2010. If the majority of consumers can be convinced to
buy smaller cars, new-car fleet-average efficiencies of 42 mpg by 2000 and 58 mpg by 2010
might be achievable.
Congress has three policy options that will promote new-car efficiency.
A Gasoline Tax
This would create incentives for increased efficiency and reduced travel. Taxes would induce
consumers to use less fuel while leaving them free to choose how they adjust their behaviour.
In concert with increasing fuel economy standards (see below), taxes could have a long-term
impact on the efficiency of this country‘s vehicle fleet.
Although the effectiveness of taxes is hard to predict from studies of the responses of
consumers to price changes in the past, our midrange estimate is that a 50 percent increase in
price could reduce consumption 5 to 20 percent over the near term and even more over the
long term. About half of consumers‘ long-term adjustment to high price is expected
to take the form of driving less and the other half to take the form of choosing more efficient
vehicles.
Fuel economy standards. These influence the trade offs among cost, performance, size, and
efficiency that underlie manufacturers‘ decisions to develop and introduce new models. The
current fuel economy standards for cars, in place since 1978, have helped to increase auto
fuel economy. More stringent standards can lower carbon dioxide emissions as
well as reduce our dependence on imported oil. Redesigned standards based on vehicle
volume—allowing larger vehicles to meet a size-adjusted standard—can help minimize the
burden on U.S. manufacturers that offer a wide range of car sizes.

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Transportation control measures
These tactics to reduce the number of vehicle miles traveled include promotion of carpools,
higher parking fees at the workplace, employer subsidies to employees who use mass transit
or vanpools, and mass transit improvements such as expanded bus service and schedules and
lower fares. Although experience with transportation controls as a means of limiting air
pollution suggests that they hold only modest promise for reducing car travel nationwide, in
some congested cities the results could be significant.
Long-term reductions in emissions can be achieved by changing patterns of settlement
to minimize the need for travel. This can be accomplished by planning for high densities, or
by mixing uses so that residences, jobs, and services are roughly balanced. When more
destinations are close to home, more trips can be made by foot; when densities are higher,
public transit can serve more people effectively. Restrictions on suburban development—
sometimes only on commercial and industrial development, and sometimes on residential
development as well—have been attempted in a few regions of the United States. Resistance
to such measures is likely to be high, and it is not an area where national policy makers can
have significant influence.
For large cuts in carbon emissions to be achieved in the transportation sector, the most
effective approach will be an integrated portfolio of policy measures that concurrently
influence the fuel efficiency of new vehicles through standards or feebates, discourage
automobile use through gasoline taxes or other measures, and provide alternatives to single
passenger automobile travel through carpooling, mass transit, and/or strategies to increase the
density of urban and suburban settlements.
Manufacturing
In this sector three technical improvements hold the greatest promise. The first is ―process
changes‖—for example, using electric arc rather than oxygen furnaces to make steel. The top
four consumers of energy in manufacturing— paper, chemicals, petroleum, and primary
metals—account for more than 75 percent of energy consumption in this
sector. Together, by means of process changes, these industries improved their energy
efficiency by between 2.3 and 4.3 percent per year between 1980 and 1985. If this pace can
be maintained, as we assume in our tough set of options for Congress, total carbon emissions
in the U.S. could drop by about 8 percent of the current total by the year 2015.
Cogenerating electricity and steam for industrial processes is another promising
strategy. If electricity were generated at industrial sites where the heat could be used to drive
engines and fire furnaces, the efficiency of fossil fuels would rise dramatically. Widespread
use of cogeneration technologies could contribute about a 4 percent drop in U.S. carbon
emissions from the current total by 2015. More efficient motors are a third technical
improvement that can bring substantial improvements, yielding reductions of about 4 percent
by 2015.

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A variety of promising policy options can encourage these technical measures:
A carbon tax would levy economic penalties against factories with the highest emissions of
carbon. Given such an approach, the tax would be highest on plants burning coal, low for
those burning natural gas.
Emissions limits and efficiency standards. For example, a limit on the rate of carbon emission
by older utility plants might be set equal to the rate of the most efficient new coal-burning
technologies. Such a limit would require a typical mid western plant burning Illinois coal to
burn between about 10 and 30 percent gas, depending on the plant‘s efficiency.
Two somewhat different strategies could be pursued to set carbon dioxide emission
limits for new plants. If the intent is to force development of ultra-efficient coal technologies,
then a standard could be set about equal to the lowest rate of emission anticipated from
technologies in the laboratory stage of development today. If the intent is to limit new
fossil-fuel-fired generation to the cleanest sources only, then an even lower performance
standard could be set— recognizing, however, that this might foreclose the option of using
coal. To speed up replacement of old plants with new, less polluting ones, Congress could
require the retirement of existing fossil-fuel-fired plants earlier than their expected lifetime of
60 years.
Efficiency standards for common energy-using equipment would be similar to those that
already exist for automobiles and some appliances. Motors, as a category, would be the most
likely candidate. If market-based approaches to lowering emissions—carbon taxes or
marketable permits—will work in any sector, they are most likely to be effective for
manufacturing (and electric utilities). Demand-side management programs can substitute for
market-based emission controls but are more effective as a complement to such controls.
Designing standards that make sense for the widely divergent uses of energy-consuming
equipment in manufacturing is much more difficult than for the building or transportation
sector. Such standards should be possible, however, for at least some of the more common
types of technologies in these sectors.

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CONCLUSION
Tackling climate change requires aggressive and prompt action. A number of technologies
are available to reduce global carbon emissions. CCS has a valuable role to play in the
climate mitigation portfolio, alongside other solutions. First generation CCS technology is
commercially available today, enabling the deployment of the technology to begin worldwide
immediately. Extensive research has shown that this can be done safely and effectively, with
the right regulatory oversight. Regulatory frameworks for carbon dioxide injection are being
finalized in various countries around the world, and it is important that these contain adequate
safeguards for public health and the environment, and that all countries abide by minimum
standards.
The main barrier for its adoption today is the price premium that it entails, but significant
cost improvements are expected in the near future once serious deployment begins.
Governments have a pivotal role to play in enabling CCS deployment through
complementary policies that include limits and a price on carbon emissions, incentives for
early deployment and performance standards for specific types of facility. Enhanced oil
recovery using carbon dioxide is expected to play an important role in the early years of CCS
deployment in certain countries, but appropriate regulation of the practice is needed to ensure
permanent sequestration. Internationally, a dedicated financing mechanism to enable CCS
deployment in developing countries with industrialized country participation is needed.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The success of any research study depends upon a number of factors among which the proper
guidance from the experts in the industry and a faculty plays an important role. We would
like to express our heartfelt thanks to many people. This Project is an effort to contribute
towards achieving the desired objectives. In doing so, we have optimized all available
resources and made use of some external resources, the interplay of which, over a period
of time, led to the attainment of the set goals. We take here a great opportunity to express our
sincere and deep sense of gratitude to Dr. Rudra Rameshwar for giving us an opportunity to
work on this project. The support & guidance from Sir, was of great help & it was extremely
valuable. We express our sincere thanks to all the people who, directly or indirectly,
contributed in time, energy and knowledge to this effort

18. 17
REFERENCES
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions
 http://environment.nationalgeographic.co.in/environment/energy/great-energy-
challenge/global-footprints/
 http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/17/business/global/europe-rejects-carbon-
plan.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0