This is a short guide to film production.

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Film Studies
What is Film Production?
Critical Approaches to Film:
Contemporary US and UK Film

2. 1
Film Production
Film, like most art forms, is essentially a creative medium but it is also a commercial
venture. So, whilst we might enjoy seeing films that make us laugh, move us, scare us,
completely turn our world upside down or make us consider issues that we had never
before considered, at the end of the day, filmmakers are not providing us with a
charitable entertainment. They are key players in a fast-moving, global, commercial
industry.
It is easy to assume that filmmakers, actors and directors who are well-known play the most
significant role in the life of a film. What should not be underestimated however, is the power of
financiers –whose influence extends to the far corners of the global film industry.
The film industry exists to make money through entertaining. Finance is crucial to each stage of a
film's life and will hopefully generate a profit to be reinvested in future film projects.
Production Distribution Exhibition
Exhibitor
Exhibitor
Producer
Production Distribution Exhibitor
Production crew Company Com pany
Writer often formed often part of large
Exhibitor
just to make multinational Exhibitor
Director
one film conglomerate Exhibitor
Cast
Exhibitor
Finance/Film
Fig. 1. From production to exhibition
The film that we finally see at the cinema is the result of many months, often many years, of
planning and budgeting. Hope, frustration, disappointment, and sometimes elation are some of the
emotions producer’s experience. The process from the original idea for a film to its arrival in the
cinema can involve hundreds of changes and hundreds of people, all of whom need to be committed
to the project if it is to succeed, the most important is the producer.
Who is the Producer?
The variety of different credits which appear at the beginning or end of a film defining the
production personnel can be confusing – producer, co-producer, associate producer, executive
producer etc. What the differences are and how each is involved in a film can vary from production
to production. There are many producer titles because people have different definitions of the term.
For example, 'executive producer' may be little more than a courtesy title to someone who has
invested money in a film.

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In the 1940's and early 1950's life was simpler and movies were less difficult to finance. They were
usually made by big studios and the producer was really the administrative partner of the director.
Nowadays, producing almost solely consists of raising the money and overseeing expenditure. The
producer will be involved from the very beginning of the film project, overseeing the initial planning
through all stages from pre-production to post production.
Producers deal with ideas,
especially raising confidence in
the idea with financiers and
distributors. They commission
the script, secure the finances,
hire the director and are involved
in casting, finding locations and
hiring the technical crew. A
producer must have legal
knowledge, creative knowledge,
flair and sales skills.
A producer can either work
independently, developing ideas
and raising the money for a film,
or can work as part of a big studio proposing projects to the studio's finance team. The producer's
continuity is crucial to the success of the production.
Throughout film history, with rare exceptions, the best creative and profitable work done by directors
has been in collaboration with strong producers: it is an effective collaborative mix which has to do
with personality and compatibility, as well as creativity. A strong producer will be ambitious for a
robust production and will also inspire distribution and marketing people to invest in a cinema
release and the promotion of a film.
The producer is generally assisted by an associate producer (AP), who directly oversees the daily
concerns of shooting. In commercial film making the producer has overall responsibility for all
aspects of production. From a distance, the film's financiers and distributors keep track of the
production of a film, and it is the producer who is responsible for communicating with them and
ensuring that the film lives up to their expectations. Any changes of story and casting will need to be
justified ensuring that all these parties maintains a confidence in the finished film.
The best producers must have a nose for a good idea and be able to keep up with public taste. They
often take financial risks and are prepared to back their hunches against the criticism of the cautious.
They need to have either great personal charisma to win over the doubters, or an extremely good
track record. Investing in film making is an uncertain venture and bankers are never over-
enthusiastic about putting their money into what seems to be a risk.
“The single most important fact, perhaps, of the entire movie industry is that
nobody knows anything... Not one person in the entire motion picture field
knows for a certainty what's going to work. Every time out it's a guess and, if
you're lucky, an educated one.” Two-time Academy Award winning screen
writer - William Goldman

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Indeed, the box-office success of a film is never certain. It is always a gamble, both for investors and
the audience who are taking their own kind of risk; neither can be sure of the precise nature of the
final product – the film!
How does a film get to the screen?
In talking about the processes at work in the life of a film, it is easy to forget that the first step in that
journey is the IDEA.
The idea can either come from a writer, a director or a producer in the form of a book, a play or an
original idea for a script. Once the idea exists, then it is normally up to the producer to a) clear the
screen rights for the material and b) raise the finance to make the film by presenting a package to
various potential investors.
If the film is being made by a film studio they would already have the finance to pay for the film's
production through other successful, profitable films they had made. In turn, profits from the film
would eventually go back to the film studio to finance future films. In the case of independent film
production, no such capital is available and has to be secured. The producer must persuade banks,
investment companies and wealthy individuals to invest in a film and try to secure a distributor's
interest.
In order to do this an OUTLINE or TREATMENT (the detailed storyline with suggestions
as to casting, locations etc.) of the film will be presented to the investors. The treatment will run
from between five to twenty-five pages. (If the director or producer are very well-known and
experienced in the film industry this stage may consist of presenting an idea without a treatment.) If
the investors like the treatment they may pay for the development of the treatment into the first draft
of the script and for the PACKAGE to be put together. Banks and other investors need some
assurance that there will be a return on their investments if they are to finance the production of the
film and it is the package that fulfils this function.
Packages consist of either a treatment or draft of the script, a proposed budget, a storyboard of some
scenes, and details of the director and any stars who have been approached and shown interest or are
already secured for the film. The track record of the director of photography (DP) and composer can
also be important elements of the package.
The DEVELOPMENT stage of a film's life
is where the ideas are clarified through research,
casting is confirmed and scripts are written. In the
process of committing ideas to paper, problems arise
and initial confidence may be lost with many scripts
ending up not going any further.
For independent companies it is sometimes difficult
to raise money even for development. Instead of
looking to just one investor, it may well be
necessary to seek out a number of investors. Land
and Freedom (1995), a film directed by Ken Loach, was financed in the development stage by British
Screen Finance, but eventually ended up with 15 different sources of money from Europe to make
the final film. This kind of funding arrangement is known as mosaic funding.

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Finally the DEAL is the agreement between the producer and the investor(s) who provides the
finance to produce the film. The terms of the deal will vary according to both the budget's potential
income or revenue and type of film. Films are rarely financed by one single investor and it is
common for films to be funded by more than one source. Most British films are collaborations or co-
financing ventures involving two or more of the following – an equity investor, a distributor and/or a
TV broadcaster (usually BBC or Channel 4).
An equity investor puts money into a film rather like a 'loan' for a fixed period which will gain
interest and has the contractual right to reclaim their initial investment plus a share of the net profits
of the film (normally in proportion to the amount invested in the film).
Putting together a deal requires trying to get all the potential investors together at the same time,
hoping that the requirements of the different investors not clash. There is no specific time limit for
putting together a deal, sometimes it can take weeks, and sometimes years. This is where film
festivals come into the picture: providing a forum for producers with their ideas to meet up with the
people with the money in the hope that a deal may be struck. Festivals such as Cannes are hives of
activity where producers take round their film packages.
The importance of casting
The stars of a film are very important. If the audience knows and likes the star of a film, they are
more likely to want to see the film than if the star is a newcomer and unknown. The casting of stars
is dependent upon the amount of money available in the production budget. The more famous the
star(s) the larger the sum required to secure them for the project. A lot of people are also interested in
those responsible for making the film e.g. producers, directors etc.
Investors try to reduce their risk by becoming involved in decisions concerning casting and/or who
directs the film. By insisting on a particular star or director the film is given a different status, or a
wholly different artistic feel.
Q. Choose an actress from the photos above. What would they bring to a
role in a film?
For the investors the most important thing is that the film is given the best possible chance – in the
hope that they will see a good financial return when the film opens in cinemas – and if this means
pushing to have a particular star then so be it. This sort of negotiation is all to do with making a film
as 'bankable' as possible.

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Remember - Film production is all about profit!
When putting together a film package questions will be raised concerning potential money-making
spin-offs including merchandise that could be produced and linked-up with promotional partners, all
of which will maximise the audience awareness of the film, and, in turn, maximise the profit the film
will make.
The details within a film package do not guarantee that a film will make money, since they are based
on guess-work before the film is made, but they will give potential investors confidence in giving
money to allow the film to be produced.
Sometimes, even though a film does not make a profit at the box office, it may make an overall profit
because of pre-sales which have been negotiated with DVD and television companies at the package
stage of the production and rental deals with cinema exhibitors.
Unlike television, a film has to attract people to a cinema and/or later to a Blockbuster. People have
to be persuaded to leave the house to buy a product that they have heard about. It is the marketing of
the film that is essential in creating audience awareness.
From the outset, the producer must have an idea as to who the AUDIENCE of the film will be
so that it might stand a chance of recouping all production costs and going into profit.
The financial success or failure of a film depends on the audience. It is the audience who will decide
whether the film is successful by paying for their cinema ticket at the box office. Interest in a film
will escalate or wane depending on the audience's opinion. They will spread the word about a film
and ultimately affect box-office success or failure. This is known as word of mouth and is the most
important aspect of marketing a film.
Q. Think about the films you have seen recently at the cinema. Why did you go and see those
particular films? Which ones were recommended by word of mouth?
It is generally assumed that to go into profit a film has to make two and a half
times its total cost at the box office. If a film costs $60 million to make, then it will
need to make $150 million at the box office and on other pre-sales (e.g. television and DVD) before
it goes into profit. Profit is the money made through box-office takings and merchandising spin-offs
after production, marketing and distribution costs have been met.
It does not necessarily correlate that the more expensive a film is to make the more profit it will
make at the box office. The film industry has many examples of so-called 'blockbuster' films which
cost millions to make and on paper look like they could not fail to make money but which do not
attract audiences. They can be marketed but they will not 'play' at the cinema. Audiences will not
want to go and see them.
Twenty years ago Who Framed Roger Rabbit? (1988) cost $50 million to make and yet resulted in a
$20 million loss. Similarly, a small budget film can make money: Four Weddings and a Funeral
(1994) cost $5 million to produce and made $250 million dollars worldwide; Trainspotting (1996)
which cost $3 million to produce made $100 million worldwide.

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It is also important to mention that some
films are never released in cinemas due to
lack of confidence in the film gaining a
profit at the box office. An expensive
marketing campaign will further drain the
film's finances and a decision will be made
to put the film straight to DVD, without a
theatrical release at the cinema.
Why are films so expensive to
make?
Read the credits at the end of any film, listing everyone from actors to technicians, imagine the cost
of so many people working on a film? There are overhead costs such as transport, accommodation,
catering and set hire, then there’s the cost of insurance if anything goes wrong. After the film’s been
shot there is the cost of editing equipment, sound editing and finally producing a master of the film.
A film's 'negative cost' is all the money that has to be paid out in advance relating to production. This
includes all the expenses listed above along with interest on loans, payments to talent (actors and
directors) and the overhead cost of studios etc. When the 'negative cost' has been paid, any money
the film makes above this is known as the net profit.
So how can you make a profit on a film?
The investors and often distributors come into a film project at the 'pre-sales' stage.
They will make decisions based on the strength of the package. The decision to invest
in a film will be based on the film's potential income or revenue, that is, the total profit
the film can possibly make at the boxoffice. The film is sold to distributors' retail
outlets such as DVD retail, and terrestrial (BBC, ITV etc) and satellite/streaming
services (Sky/Netflix/Amazon) television. Deals are made with these companies at the
pre-sales stage which provides further income for the making of a film.

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What happens next?
Once the deal has been done the making of the film begins. The film production process is divided
into three stages:
1) Pre-production - planning, budgeting, scheduling, casting
2) Production - filming
3) Post Production - film editing, sound editing, soundtrack
1. Pre-Production (Research & Planning)
Pre-production in film making is office based involving a team which includes the producer, director,
assistants and administrative staff. This is the first stage in a film's life and can take anything from
six months to two years and involves planning and scheduling the shooting of a film. Shooting a film
is extremely expensive involving actors, technicians and equipment. It is at the pre-production stage
that decisions are made, and potential problems are solved to ensure that the shooting schedule is
adhered to and runs as smoothly as possible.
What happens to the script?
During pre-production the script is broken down into scenes and storyboarded and a shooting
schedule prepared. For the sake of economy all scenes on one set or location will be filmed at the
same time, out of sequence. If a film begins and ends in New York, but the bulk of the story is in
London, then the New York scenes will be shot at the same time. A continuity person or script
supervisor will keep detailed notes about the actors' hairstyles, costumes and props etc. checking that
they look the same in scenes that are supposed to be close together, and yet are shot weeks apart. For
actors and actresses this means having to keep 'in character' and maintain the appropriate emotional
attitude in scenes which are shot out of sequence.
The producer works with the director to bring the screenplay to life. Working relationships vary
depending on personalities but broadly speaking the producer is responsible for the costs of the
production and aspects of planning, and the director is responsible for making artistic decisions. The
artistic decisions and the cost of the production are inseparable. This means that the producer and
director work closely together making combined decisions about the employment of staff, casting,
design, lighting and locations.
The script is the essential element for decisions being made as it dictates casting of characters,
locations to be used plus design issues, such as lighting, camerawork, costume and set requirements.
The film is interpreted in drawings on the storyboard which will then be used during the production
of the film. The producer and director will brief the location manager, director of photography,
casting director, set and costume designer, and any other personnel that the film requires such as the
musical director, the special effects unit, choreographer and stunt co-ordinator etc.
Everyone in production receives a copy of the final version of the script. There can be any number of
revisions and rewrites to the script, firstly by the scriptwriter(s), by the director, lead actors and
sometimes the producer. These alterations can be continual throughout the production stage. The
production manager ensures everyone has the corrected, current script to work from, sometimes
updated on a daily basis.

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Budgeting
The cost of production will have been estimated at the deal stage of raising finance; however, the
true cost of a production becomes apparent as filming progresses and the budget breakdown becomes
more precise.
The budget of a film production is divided into above-the-line and below-the-line costs.
Shooting Schedule
Once a film has been budgeted and the producer has contracted the stars and some of the technical
personnel, the film will have to be 'scheduled'. A schedule is basically a timetable for the shooting of
a film.
A film is rarely shot in the order that we, the cinema goers, finally see it. Restrictions on when
people and locations are available mean that the film's shooting has to be carried out around
particular availabilities. Only so many scenes can be shot in one day. On a good day's shoot, possibly
five minutes of usable film will be shot. With only one film unit, a full-length feature film could take
anything up to six or seven weeks to shoot.
Above-the-line cos ts include:
fees for the producer, director and stars/actors, and technician costs known before
the shooting begins. Above-the-line costs are fixed and will not change during
the production process.
Below -the-line cos ts include:
any other expenditure, including film stock, equipment hire, hotel costs, food,
scenery, costumes, properties etc. Below-the-line costs are changeable.
Things can happen on a film which might require more money to be spent on
that particular area of the budget, for instance, part of the script re-written to
accommodate a role being enlarged. This money will then have to be found from
another part of the budget or re-negotiations begin with the investors or new
money found elsewhere.

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2. Production (Filming)
Production is the actual shooting of the film where everyone is involved; the stars, producer, director,
an army of technicians, other cast, production personnel, make-up and wardrobe people, set
designers and electricians – not to mention the caterers. The numerous credits at the end of each film
gives you a good example of who works on a film and their importance.
The most expensive part of film making is the production which is labour intensive, with equipment
and travel being part of the budget costs. Meticulous planning in pre-production will help to ensure
that potential problems will have been addressed, making sure the often tight filming schedule runs
smoothly.
To make sure the production stays within the planned schedule, daily 'call/ schedule sheets' are
produced and distributed to all members of the cast and crew. These detail the shooting schedule for
the following day including scenes to be shot, the actors required, start times and contact numbers
etc.
What actually happens on a shoot and how many takes are needed is impossible to define in any
individual film: there are so many variables that depend on individual temperament, styles of
working, planning and organisational skills that each film production is very different.
The shooting schedule of each individual film varies according to the film's length, availability of
stars, and if the film is being shot simultaneously in more than one country. Filming is the most
exacting part of this creative and energetic industry. Everyone on the set wants the filming to go
well, from the stars down to the caterers hope for the 'right' weather condition on location shoots to
complete the filming schedule on time.
3. Post–Production (Sound & Film Editing)
The process of editing includes the selection and shaping of shots, the arrangement of shots, scenes
and sequences and special effects, the mixing of all soundtracks and the matching of the soundtrack
to the images.
Once the day's film rushes have been approved, they are transported to the post production facility
house where they are viewed and logged by an assistant editor. The process of logging, which
involves writing a brief description of each shot, is fundamental for the systematic editing process.
The editor then assembles the footage from the shooting script, joining the best takes into a 'rough
assembly' which the director and producer view and comment on. This is tightened up into a 'rough
cut' and then into a 'finished edit' or 'fine cut' where gradually the film starts to take shape. During
the shooting of most films, editing begins during production, with the editor and the director
conferring about the rushes and tentatively putting together a rough assembly.
Developments in digital technology had a profound effect on the skills of the editor and the process
of editing. Computerised editing allows for greater flexibility, speed and accuracy, and gives the
editor the chance to try out a variety of sequences and be creative by 'mixing' shots whilst doing
away with the need for the traditional 'cut' of a film print.
Since the mid 1990s digital technology has been capable of creating stunts which would either have
be too expensive or too dangerous to be attempted previously.

11. 10
The sound editor puts the sound onto the film and assembles different soundtracks, sound effects and
music. During the shooting of the film the sound is recorded separately. The film and sound tape
have lip-synchronisation. If there are alterations needed to the timbre or recording levels of the
dialogue, the actors are recalled at the editing stage to re-record or ‘dub’ their lines. This happens in
a small studio while they are watching the corresponding piece of finished film.
Foley Sound
The sound effects on a film are carried out by sound effects specialists. These skilled artists work in
small studios, and whilst watching the film will create appropriate sound effects for the film. Their
skills lie in using weird and wonderful methods of simulating particular sounds, for example,
breaking ice-cold celery in water which sounds like a leg breaking! More common sound effects can
be obtained from a sound effects library.
Why is the composition of a sound track so important?
The composer is responsible for writing the music for the film – the soundtrack –and will become
fully involved in the post production stage. The music adds mood and atmosphere to a film, and the
composer, after talks with the director and producer, will watch the completed film and synchronise
the music with the editing. Although music is often thought of as incidental to the action, it plays an
important part in helping to create the overall 'feel' of the film. For instance, the 'Bond' theme written
by Monty Norman, which is instantly recognisable, runs through all the James Bond movies.
A good soundtrack often becomes famous in its own right. Indeed, there are some films for which
the driving force is the music, not the plot. Those responsible for marketing films at the distribution
stage have been quick to catch on to the selling power of a good soundtrack, and most films now
have an accompanying CD, playlist and download. The involvement of a well-known band will help
in getting air time on radio stations and, therefore, additional publicity.
Q. Can you think of anyrecent film soundtracksthathave proved popularwith
audiences?
What happens at the end of the production process?
The film is finally finished off, colour graded and copies made in a laboratory; it is
these film prints that will be shown in cinemas. The producerhands the film over to
the distributor to target an audience. In raising the money for the film, the producer
will have estimated the potential income that the film could make through various pre-
sales outlets and box-office takings. The distributor's marketing campaign will
heighten awareness of the film and, ultimately, it will be the cinema-going audience
who will decide whether the film is successfulor not.