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Biology in Focus - Chapter 39
1.
CAMPBELL BIOLOGY IN
FOCUS © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson • Reece Lecture Presentations by Kathleen Fitzpatrick and Nicole Tunbridge 39 Motor Mechanisms and Behavior
2.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Overview: The How and Why of Animal Activity Fiddler crabs feed with their small claw and wave their large claw Why do male fiddler crabs engage in claw-waving behavior? Claw waving is used to repel other males and to attract females Video: Albatross Courtship Video: Boobies Courtship Video: Giraffe Courtship
3.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.1
4.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. A behavior is an action carried out by muscles under control of the nervous system Behavior is subject to natural selection
5.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Concept 39.1: The physical interaction of protein filaments is required for muscle function Muscle activity is a response to input from the nervous system Muscle contraction is an active process; muscle relaxation is passive
6.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Muscle cell contraction relies on the interaction between protein structures Thin filaments consist of two strands of actin coiled around one another Thick filaments are staggered arrays of myosin molecules
7.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Vertebrate Skeletal Muscle Vertebrate skeletal muscle moves bones and the body and is characterized by a hierarchy of smaller and smaller units A skeletal muscle consists of a bundle of long fibers, each a single cell, running parallel to the length of the muscle Each muscle fiber is itself a bundle of smaller myofibrils, which contain thick and thin filaments
8.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Skeletal muscle is also called striated muscle because the regular arrangement of myofibrils creates a pattern of light and dark bands The functional unit of a muscle is called a sarcomere and is bordered by Z lines
9.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.2 Muscle Bundle of muscle fibers Nuclei Z lines Myofibril Single muscle fiber (cell) Plasma membrane Sarcomere Thick filaments (myosin) Z line Sarcomere Thin filaments (actin) Z line M line TEM 0.5 µm
10.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.2a Muscle Bundle of muscle fibers Nuclei Z lines Myofibril Single muscle fiber (cell) Sarcomere Plasma membrane
11.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.2b Sarcomere Thick filaments (myosin) Z line Sarcomere Thin filaments (actin) Z line M line TEM 0.5 µm
12.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.2c Sarcomere TEM 0.5 µm
13.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The Sliding-Filament Mechanism of Muscle Contraction According to the sliding-filament model, filaments slide past each other longitudinally, causing an overlap between thin and thick filaments Video: Cardiac Muscle
14.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.3 Sarcomere Relaxed muscle Contracting muscle Fully contracted muscle Z ZZZ MM Contracted sarcomere 0.5 µm
15.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.3a Sarcomere ZZ M 0.5 µm
16.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.3b Sarcomere ZZ M 0.5 µm
17.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.3c Contracted sarcomere 0.5 µm
18.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The sliding of filaments relies on interaction between actin and myosin The “head” of a myosin molecule binds to an actin filament, forming a cross-bridge and pulling the thin filament toward the center of the sarcomere Muscle contraction requires repeated cycles of binding and release
19.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Glycolysis and aerobic respiration generate the ATP needed to sustain muscle contraction Video: Myosin and Actin
20.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.4 Thin filaments Thick filament Thin filament moves toward center of sarcomere. Cross-bridge Myosin head (low energy configuration) Myosin head (low energy configuration) Thin filament Thick filament Myosin head (high energy configuration) ATP Myosin- binding sites ATP Actin ADP P i ADP P i ADP P i 5 1 2 3 4
21.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.4a Myosin head (low energy configuration) Thin filament Thick filament ATP 1 ATP
22.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.4b 2 Myosin head (high energy configuration) Myosin- binding sitesActin ADP P i
23.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.4c 3 Cross-bridge ADP P i
24.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.4d 4 Thin filament moves toward center of sarcomere. Myosin head (low energy configuration)
25.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The Role of Calcium and Regulatory Proteins The regulatory protein tropomyosin and the troponin complex, a set of additional proteins, bind to actin strands on thin filaments when a muscle fiber is at rest This prevents actin and myosin from interacting
26.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.5 Myosin- binding site Tropomyosin Actin Troponin complex (a) Myosin-binding sites blocked (b) Myosin-binding sites exposed Ca2+ -binding sites Ca2+
27.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. For a muscle fiber to contract, myosin-binding sites must be uncovered This occurs when calcium ions (Ca2+ ) bind to the troponin complex and expose the myosin-binding sites Contraction occurs when the concentration of Ca2+ is high; muscle fiber contraction stops when the concentration of Ca2+ is low
28.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The stimulus leading to contraction of a muscle fiber is an action potential in a motor neuron that makes a synapse with the muscle fiber The synaptic terminal of the motor neuron releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine Acetylcholine depolarizes the muscle, causing it to produce an action potential Animation: Muscle Contraction
29.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.6 Synaptic terminal Ca2+ released from SR Ca2+ 1 T tubule Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Plasma membrane of muscle fiber Myofibril Axon of motor neuron Sarcomere Mitochondrion Synaptic terminal of motor neuron T tubule Plasma membrane Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Synaptic cleft ACh Ca2+ pump Ca2+ CYTOSOL ATP 2 3 4 5 6 7
30.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.6a Synaptic terminal Ca2+ released from SR T tubule Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Plasma membrane of muscle fiber Myofibril Axon of motor neuron Sarcomere Mitochondrion
31.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.6b Ca2+ 1 Synaptic terminal of motor neuron T tubule Plasma membrane Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Synaptic cleft ACh Ca2+ pump Ca2+ CYTOSOL ATP 2 3 4 5 6 7
32.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Action potentials travel to the interior of the muscle fiber along transverse (T) tubules, infoldings of the plasma membrane The action potential along T tubules causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), a specialized endoplasmic reticulum, to release Ca2+ The Ca2+ binds to the troponin complex on the thin filaments, initiating muscle fiber contraction
33.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. When motor neuron input stops, the muscle cell relaxes Transport proteins in the SR pump Ca2+ out of the cytosol Regulatory proteins bound to thin filaments shift back to the myosin-binding sites
34.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS; also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease) interferes with the excitation of skeletal muscle fibers; this disease is usually fatal Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disease that attacks acetylcholine receptors on muscle fibers; treatments exist for this disease
35.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Nervous Control of Muscle Tension Contraction of a whole muscle is graded, which means that the extent and strength of its contraction can be voluntarily altered There are two basic mechanisms by which the nervous system produces graded contractions Varying the number of fibers that contract Varying the rate at which fibers are stimulated
36.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. In vertebrates, each motor neuron may synapse with multiple muscle fibers, although each fiber is controlled by only one motor neuron A motor unit consists of a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it controls
37.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.7 Synaptic terminals Spinal cord Motor neuron cell body Motor neuron axon Motor unit 1 Motor unit 2 Nerve Muscle fibers Muscle Tendon
38.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Recruitment of multiple motor neurons results in stronger contractions A twitch results from a single action potential in a motor neuron More rapidly delivered action potentials produce a graded contraction by summation
39.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.8 TetanusTension Summation of two twitches Single twitch Time Action potential Pair of action potentials Series of action potentials at high frequency
40.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Tetanus is a state of smooth and sustained contraction produced when motor neurons deliver a volley of action potentials
41.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers There are several distinct types of skeletal muscles, each of which is adapted to a particular set of functions They are classified by the source of ATP powering the muscle activity and the speed of muscle contraction
42.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Table 39.1
43.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Oxidative and glycolytic fibers are differentiated by their energy source Oxidative fibers rely mostly on aerobic respiration to generate ATP These fibers have many mitochondria, a rich blood supply, and a large amount of myoglobin Myoglobin is a protein that binds oxygen more tightly than hemoglobin does
44.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Glycolytic fibers use glycolysis as their primary source of ATP Glycolytic fibers have less myoglobin than oxidative fibers and tire more easily In poultry and fish, light meat is composed of glycolytic fibers, while dark meat is composed of oxidative fibers
45.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Fast-twitch and slow-twitch fibers are differentiated by their speed of contraction Slow-twitch fibers contract more slowly but sustain longer contractions All slow-twitch fibers are oxidative Fast-twitch fibers contract more rapidly but sustain shorter contractions Fast-twitch fibers can be either glycolytic or oxidative
46.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Most human skeletal muscles contain both slow- twitch and fast-twitch muscles in varying ratios Some vertebrates have muscles that twitch at rates much faster than human muscles In producing its characteristic mating call, the male toadfish can contract and relax certain muscles more than 200 times per second
47.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 39.9
48.
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Education, Inc. Other Types of Muscle In addition to skeletal muscle, vertebrates have cardiac muscle and smooth muscle Cardiac muscle, found only in the heart, consists of striated cells electrically connected by intercalated disks Cardiac muscle can generate action potentials without neural input
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Education, Inc. In smooth muscle, found mainly in walls of hollow organs such as those of the digestive tract, contractions are relatively slow and may be initiated by the muscles themselves Contractions may also be caused by stimulation from neurons in the autonomic nervous system
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Education, Inc. Concept 39.2: Skeletal systems transform muscle contraction into locomotion Skeletal muscles are attached in antagonistic pairs, the actions of which are coordinated by the nervous system The skeleton provides a rigid structure to which muscles attach Skeletons function in support, protection, and movement
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.10 Biceps Human forearm (internal skeleton) Extension Grasshopper tibia (external skeleton) Biceps Triceps Triceps Extensor muscle Flexor muscle Extensor muscle Flexor muscle Flexion Contracting muscle Relaxing muscleKey
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Education, Inc. Types of Skeletal Systems The three main types of skeletons are Hydrostatic skeletons (lack hard parts) Exoskeletons (external hard parts) Endoskeletons (internal hard parts)
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Education, Inc. Hydrostatic Skeletons A hydrostatic skeleton consists of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment This is the main type of skeleton in most cnidarians, flatworms, nematodes, and annelids Annelids use their hydrostatic skeleton for peristalsis, a type of movement on land produced by rhythmic waves of muscle contractions
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.11 Longitudinal muscle relaxed (extended) Longitudinal muscle contracted Circular muscle contracted Circular muscle relaxed Bristles Head end Head end Head end 1 2 3
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Education, Inc. Exoskeletons An exoskeleton is a hard encasement deposited on the surface of an animal Exoskeletons are found in most molluscs and arthropods Arthropods have a jointed exoskeleton called a cuticle, which can be both strong and flexible About 30–50% of the arthropod cuticle consists of a polysaccharide called chitin An arthropod must shed and regrow its exoskeleton when it grows
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Education, Inc. Endoskeletons An endoskeleton consists of a hard internal skeleton, buried in soft tissue Endoskeletons are found in organisms ranging from sponges to mammals A mammalian skeleton has more than 200 bones Some bones are fused; others are connected at joints by ligaments that allow freedom of movement
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.12 Skull Shoulder girdle Clavicle Scapula Sternum Carpals Pelvic girdle Ulna Radius Vertebra Humerus Rib Phalanges Metatarsals Tarsals Fibula Tibia Patella Femur Metacarpals Phalanges Types of joints Ball-and-socket joint Hinge joint Pivot joint
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.13 Ball-and-socket joint Hinge joint Pivot joint Ulna Radius Humerus Ulna Head of humerus Scapula
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Education, Inc. Size and Scale of Skeletons An animal’s body structure must support its size The weight of a body increases with the cube of its dimensions, while the strength of that body increases with the square of its dimensions
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Education, Inc. The skeletons of small and large animals have different proportions In mammals and birds, the position of legs relative to the body is very important in determining how much weight the legs can bear
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Education, Inc. Types of Locomotion Most animals are capable of locomotion, or active travel from place to place In locomotion, energy is expended to overcome friction and gravity
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Education, Inc. Flying Active flight requires that wings develop enough lift to overcome the downward force of gravity Many flying animals have adaptations that reduce body mass For example, birds have no teeth or urinary bladder, and their relatively large bones have air-filled regions
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Education, Inc. Locomotion on Land Walking, running, or hopping on land requires an animal to support itself and move against gravity Diverse adaptations for locomotion on land have evolved in vertebrates For example, kangaroos have large, powerful muscles in their hind legs, suitable for hopping
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.14
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Education, Inc. Swimming In water, friction is a bigger problem than gravity Fast swimmers usually have a sleek, torpedo-like shape to minimize friction Animals swim in diverse ways Paddling with their legs as oars Jet propulsion Undulating their body and tail from side to side or up and down
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Education, Inc. Concept 39.3: Discrete sensory inputs can stimulate both simple and complex behaviors Niko Tinbergen identified four questions that should be asked about animal behavior 1. What stimulus elicits the behavior, and what physiological mechanisms mediate the response? 2. How does the animal’s experience during growth and development influence the response?
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Education, Inc. 3. How does the behavior aid survival and reproduction? 4. What is the behavior’s evolutionary history? Behavioral ecology is the study of the ecological and evolutionary basis for animal behavior
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Education, Inc. Behavioral ecology integrates proximate and ultimate explanations for animal behavior Proximate causation addresses “how” a behavior occurs or is modified, including Tinbergen’s questions 1 and 2 Ultimate causation addresses “why” a behavior occurs in the context of natural selection, including Tinbergen’s questions 3 and 4
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Education, Inc. Fixed Action Patterns A fixed action pattern is a sequence of unlearned, innate behaviors that is unchangeable Once initiated, it is usually carried to completion A fixed action pattern is triggered by an external cue known as a sign stimulus
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Education, Inc. Tinbergen observed male stickleback fish responding to a passing red truck In male stickleback fish, the stimulus for attack behavior is the red underside of an intruder When presented with unrealistic models, the attack behavior occurs as long as some red is present
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.15 (a) (b)
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Education, Inc. Migration Environmental cues can trigger movement in a particular direction Migration is a regular, long-distance change in location Animals can orient themselves using The position of the sun and their circadian clock, an internal 24-hour activity rhythm or cycle The position of the sun or stars Earth’s magnetic field
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Education, Inc. Behavioral Rhythms Some animal behavior is affected by the animal’s circadian rhythm, a daily cycle of rest and activity Behaviors such as migration and reproduction are linked to changing seasons, or a circannual rhythm Daylight and darkness are common seasonal cues Some behaviors are linked to lunar cycles, which affect tidal movements
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Education, Inc. Animal Signals and Communication In behavioral ecology, a signal is a behavior that causes a change in another animal’s behavior Communication is the transmission and reception of signals
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Education, Inc. Forms of Animal Communication Animals communicate using visual, chemical, tactile, and auditory signals Fruit fly courtship follows a three-step stimulus- response chain
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Education, Inc. 1. A male identifies a female of the same species and orients toward her Chemical communication: he smells a female’s chemicals in the air Visual communication: he sees the female and orients his body toward hers
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Education, Inc. 2. The male alerts the female to his presence Tactile communication: he taps the female with a foreleg
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Education, Inc. 3. The male produces a courtship song to inform the female of his species Auditory communication: he extends and vibrates his wing If all three steps are successful, the female will allow the male to copulate
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Education, Inc. Honeybees show complex communication with symbolic language A bee returning from the field performs a dance to communicate information about the distance and direction of a food source
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.16 (a) Worker bees (b) Round dance (food near) (c) Waggle dance (food distant) Location A Location B Location C Beehive A B C 30° 30°
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.16a (a) Worker bees
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.16b (b) Round dance (food near)
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.16c (c) Waggle dance (food distant) Beehive A B C 30° 30° Location A Location B Location C
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Education, Inc. Pheromones Many animals that communicate through odors emit chemical substances called pheromones
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Education, Inc. For example, A female moth can attract a male moth several kilometers distant A honeybee queen produces a pheromone that affects the development and behavior of female workers and male drones When a minnow or catfish is injured, an alarm substance in the fish’s skin disperses in the water, causing nearby fish to seek safety
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Education, Inc. Animals use diverse forms of communication Nocturnal animals, such as most terrestrial mammals, depend on olfactory and auditory communication Diurnal animals, such as humans and most birds, use visual and auditory communication
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Education, Inc. Concept 39.4: Learning establishes specific links between experience and behavior Innate behavior is developmentally fixed and does not vary among individuals
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Education, Inc. Experience and Behavior Cross-fostering studies help behavioral ecologists to identify the contribution of environment to an animal’s behavior A cross-fostering study places the young from one species in the care of adults from another species
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Education, Inc. Studies of California mice and white-footed mice have uncovered an influence of social environment on aggressive and parental behaviors Cross-fostered mice developed some behaviors that were consistent with their foster parents
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Education, Inc. Table 39.2
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Education, Inc. In humans, twin studies allow researchers to compare the relative influences of genetics and environment on behavior
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Education, Inc. Learning Learning is the modification of behavior based on specific experiences
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Education, Inc. Imprinting Imprinting is the establishment of a long-lasting behavioral response to a particular individual Imprinting can only take place during a specific time in development, called the sensitive period A sensitive period is a limited developmental phase that is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned
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Education, Inc. An example of imprinting is young geese following their mother Konrad Lorenz showed that when baby geese spent the first few hours of their life with him, they imprinted on him as their parent The imprint stimulus in greylag geese is a nearby object that is moving away from the young geese Video: Ducklings
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.17 (a) Konrad Lorenz and geese (b) Pilot and cranes
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.17a (a) Konrad Lorenz and geese
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.17b (b) Pilot and cranes
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Education, Inc. Conservation biologists have taken advantage of imprinting in programs to save the whooping crane from extinction Young whooping cranes can imprint on humans in “crane suits” who then lead crane migrations using ultralight aircraft
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Education, Inc. Spatial Learning and Cognitive Maps Spatial learning is the establishment of a memory that reflects the spatial structure of the environment Niko Tinbergen showed how digger wasps use landmarks to find nest entrances
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.18 Experiment Pinecone Results Nest Nest No nest
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Education, Inc. A cognitive map is an internal representation of spatial relationships between objects in an animal’s surroundings For example, Clark’s nutcrackers can find food hidden in caches located halfway between particular landmarks
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Education, Inc. Associative Learning In associative learning, animals associate one feature of their environment with another For example, a blue jay will avoid eating butterflies with specific colors after a bad experience with a distasteful monarch butterfly
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.19
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.19a
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.19b
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.19c
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Education, Inc. Animals can learn to link many pairs of features of their environment, but not all For example, pigeons can learn to associate danger with a sound but not with a color For example, rats can learn to avoid illness-inducing foods on the basis of smells, but not on the basis of sights or sounds
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Education, Inc. Cognition and Problem Solving Cognition is a process of knowing that may include awareness, reasoning, recollection, and judgment For example, honeybees can distinguish “same” from “different”
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Education, Inc. Problem solving is the process of devising a strategy to overcome an obstacle For example, chimpanzees can stack boxes in order to reach suspended food For example, ravens obtained food suspended from a branch by a string by pulling up the string
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Education, Inc. Social learning is learning through the observation of others and forms the roots of culture For example, young chimpanzees learn to crack palm nuts with stones by copying older chimpanzees
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Education, Inc. Culture is a system of information transfer through observation or teaching that influences behavior of individuals in a population Culture can alter behavior and influence the fitness of individuals
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Education, Inc. Concept 39.5: Selection for individual survival and reproductive success can explain most behaviors Behavior enhances survival and reproductive success in a population Foraging is a behavior essential for survival and reproduction that includes recognizing, capturing, and eating food items
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Education, Inc. Evolution of Foraging Behavior Natural selection refines behaviors that enhance the efficiency of feeding
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Education, Inc. In Drosophila melanogaster, variation in a gene dictates foraging behavior in the larvae Larvae with one allele travel farther while foraging than larvae with the other allele Larvae in high-density populations benefit from foraging farther for food, while larvae in low-density populations benefit from short-distance foraging
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Education, Inc. Natural selection favors different alleles depending on the density of the population Under laboratory conditions, evolutionary changes in the frequency of these two alleles were observed over several generations
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.20 Low population density High population density D. melanogaster lineages Meanpathlength(cm) R1 R2 R3 K1 K2 K3 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
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Education, Inc. Mating Behavior and Mate Choice Mating behavior includes seeking or attracting mates, choosing among potential mates, competing for mates, and caring for offspring Mating relationships define a number of distinct mating systems
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Education, Inc. Mating Systems and Sexual Dimorphism The mating relationship between males and females varies greatly from species to species In some species there are no strong pair-bonds In monogamous relationships, one male mates with one female Males and females with monogamous mating systems have similar external morphologies
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.21 (a) Monogamous species (b) Polygynous species (c) Polyandrous species
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.21a (a) Monogamous species
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.21b (b) Polygynous species
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.21c (c) Polyandrous species
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Education, Inc. In polygamous relationships, an individual of one sex mates with several individuals of the other sex Species with polygamous mating systems are usually sexually dimorphic: males and females have different external morphologies Polygamous relationships can be either polygynous or polyandrous
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Education, Inc. In polygyny, one male mates with many females The males are usually more showy and larger than the females
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Education, Inc. In polyandry, one female mates with many males The females are often more showy than the males
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Education, Inc. Needs of the young are an important factor constraining evolution of mating systems Mating Systems and Parental Care
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Education, Inc. Consider bird species where chicks need a continuous supply of food A male maximizes his reproductive success by staying with his mate and caring for his chicks (monogamy) Consider bird species where chicks are soon able to feed and care for themselves A male maximizes his reproductive success by seeking additional mates (polygyny)
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Education, Inc. Certainty of paternity influences parental care and mating behavior Females can be certain that eggs laid or young born contain her genes; however, paternal certainty depends on mating behavior Paternal certainty is relatively low in species with internal fertilization because mating and birth are separated over time
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Education, Inc. Certainty of paternity is much higher when egg laying and mating occur together, as in external fertilization In species with external fertilization, parental care is at least as likely to be by males as by females
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.22
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Education, Inc. Sexual dimorphism results from sexual selection, a form of natural selection In intersexual selection, members of one sex choose mates on the basis of certain traits Intrasexual selection involves competition between members of the same sex for mates Sexual Selection and Mate Choice
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Education, Inc. Female choice is a type of intersexual competition Females can drive sexual selection by choosing males with specific behaviors or features of anatomy For example, female stalk-eyed flies choose males with relatively long eyestalks Ornaments, such as long eyestalks, often correlate with health and vitality Video: Chimp Agonistic Video: Snakes Wrestling Video: Wolves Agonistic
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.23
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Education, Inc. Male competition for mates is a source of intrasexual selection that can reduce variation among males Such competition may involve agonistic behavior, an often ritualized contest that determines which competitor gains access to a resource
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Education, Inc. Concept 39.6: Inclusive fitness can account for the evolution of behavior, including altruism The definition of fitness can be expanded beyond individual survival to help explain “selfless” behavior
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Education, Inc. Genetic Basis of Behavior Differences at a single locus can sometimes have a large effect on behavior For example, male prairie voles pair-bond with their mates, while male meadow voles do not The level of a specific receptor for a neurotransmitter determines which behavioral pattern develops
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.24
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Education, Inc. Genetic Variation and the Evolution of Behavior When behavioral variation within a species corresponds to environmental variation, it may be evidence of past evolution
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Education, Inc. The natural diet of western garter snakes varies by population Coastal populations feed mostly on banana slugs, while inland populations rarely eat banana slugs Studies have shown that the differences in diet are genetic The two populations differ in their ability to detect and respond to specific odor molecules produced by the banana slugs Case Study: Variation in Prey Selection
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.25
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Education, Inc. Natural selection favors behavior that maximizes an individual’s survival and reproduction These behaviors are often selfish On occasion, some animals behave in ways that reduce their individual fitness but increase the fitness of others This kind of behavior is called altruism, or selflessness Altruism
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Education, Inc. For example, under threat from a predator, an individual Belding’s ground squirrel will make an alarm call to warn others, even though calling increases the chances that the caller is killed For example, in naked mole rat populations, nonreproductive individuals may sacrifice their lives protecting their reproductive queen and kings from predators
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.26
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Education, Inc. Inclusive Fitness Altruism can be explained by inclusive fitness Inclusive fitness is the total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing offspring and helping close relatives produce offspring
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Education, Inc. Hamilton’s Rule and Kin Selection William Hamilton proposed a quantitative measure for predicting when natural selection would favor altruistic acts among related individuals Three key variables in an altruistic act Benefit to the recipient (B) Cost to the altruistic (C) Coefficient of relatedness (the fraction of genes that, on average, are shared; r)
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Education, Inc. Natural selection favors altruism when rB > C This inequality is called Hamilton’s rule Hamilton’s rule is illustrated with the following example of a girl who risks her life to save her brother
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Education, Inc. Assume the average individual has two children. As a result of the sister’s action The brother can now father two children, so B = 2 The sister has a 25% chance of dying and not being able to have two children, so C = 0.25 × 2 = 0.5 The brother and sister share half their genes on average, so r = 0.5 If the sister saves her brother, rB (= 1) > C (= 0.5)
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.27 Parent A Parent B Sibling 1 Sibling 2 ½ (0.5) probability OR ½ (0.5) probability
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Education, Inc. Kin selection is the natural selection that favors this kind of altruistic behavior by enhancing reproductive success of relatives
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.UN01 Flying Running Swimming Body mass (g) (log scale) 10−3 103 1061 102 10−1 10 1 Energycost(cal/kg•m) (logscale)
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.UN02 Sarcomere Relaxed muscle Contracting muscle Fully contracted muscle Contracted sarcomere Thin filament Thick filament
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Education, Inc. Figure 39.UN03 Imprinting Learning and problem solving Cognition Social learning Spatial learning Associative learning
Editor's Notes
Figure 39.1 What prompts a fiddler crab to wave its giant claw?
Figure 39.2 The structure of skeletal muscle
Figure 39.2a The structure of skeletal muscle (part 1: muscle fibers)
Figure 39.2b The structure of skeletal muscle (part 2: sarcomere)
Figure 39.2c The structure of skeletal muscle (part 3: sarcomere, TEM)
Figure 39.3 The sliding-filament model of muscle contraction
Figure 39.3a The sliding-filament model of muscle contraction (part 1: relaxed muscle, TEM)
Figure 39.3b The sliding-filament model of muscle contraction (part 2: contracting muscle, TEM)
Figure 39.3c The sliding-filament model of muscle contraction (part 3: fully contracted muscle, TEM)
Figure 39.4 Myosin-actin interactions underlying muscle fiber contraction
Figure 39.4a Myosin-actin interactions underlying muscle fiber contraction (part 1: low energy configuration)
Figure 39.4b Myosin-actin interactions underlying muscle fiber contraction (part 2: high energy configuration)
Figure 39.4c Myosin-actin interactions underlying muscle fiber contraction (part 3: cross-bridge)
Figure 39.4d Myosin-actin interactions underlying muscle fiber contraction (part 4: sliding filament)
Figure 39.5 The role of regulatory proteins and calcium in muscle fiber contraction
Figure 39.6 Exploring the regulation of skeletal muscle contraction
Figure 39.6a Exploring the regulation of skeletal muscle contraction (part 1: detail of synaptic terminal)
Figure 39.6b Exploring the regulation of skeletal muscle contraction (part 2: steps of process)
Figure 3.7 Motor units in a vertebrate skeletal muscle
Figure 39.8 Summation of twitches
Table 39.1 Types of skeletal muscle fibers
Figure 39.9 Specialization of skeletal muscle
Figure 39.10 The interaction of muscles and skeletons in movement
Figure 39.11 Crawling by peristalsis
Figure 39.12 Bones and joints of the human skeleton
Figure 39.13 Types of joints
Figure 39.14 Energy-efficient locomotion on land
Figure 39.15 Sign stimuli in a classic fixed action pattern
Figure 39.16 Honeybee dance language
Figure 39.16a Honeybee dance language (part 1: photo)
Figure 39.16b Honeybee dance language (part 2: round dance)
Figure 39.16c Honeybee dance language (part 3: waggle dance)
Table 39.2 Influence of cross-fostering on male mice
Figure 39.17 Imprinting
Figure 39.17a Imprinting (part 1: geese)
Figure 39.17b Imprinting (part 2: cranes)
Figure 39.18 Inquiry: Does a digger wasp use landmarks to find her nest?
Figure 39.19 Associative learning
Figure 39.19a Associative learning (part 1: catching butterfly)
Figure 39.19b Associative learning (part 2: eating butterfly)
Figure 39.19c Associative learning (part 3: vomiting up butterfly)
Figure 39.20 Evolution of foraging behavior by laboratory populations of Drosophila melanogaster
Figure 39.21 Relationship between mating system and male and female forms
Figure 39.21a Relationship between mating system and male and female forms (part 1: monogamous species)
Figure 39.21b Relationship between mating system and male and female forms (part 2: polygynous species)
Figure 39.21c Relationship between mating system and male and female forms (part 3: polyandrous species)
Figure 39.22 Paternal care by a male jawfish
Figure 39.23 Male stalk-eyed flies
Figure 39.24 A pair of prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster) huddling
Figure 39.25 Western garter snake from a coastal habitat eating a banana slug
Figure 39.26 Naked mole rats, a species of colonial mammal that exhibits altruistic behavior
Figure 39.27 The coefficient of relatedness between siblings
Figure 39.UN01 Skills exercise: interpreting a graph with log scales
Figure 39.UN02 Summary of key concepts: muscle function
Figure 39.UN03 Summary of key concepts: learning
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