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BlinkWrite2: An Improved Text Entry Method Using Eye Blinks
                                                                Behrooz Ashtiani & I. Scott MacKenzie

                                                              Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering
                                                                          York University
                                                                         Toronto, CANADA
                                                                   {abehrooz, mack}@cse.yorku.ca

Abstract                                                                                           1.1        Eye Tracking and Eye Typing
Areas of design improvements for BlinkWrite, an eye blink text                                     Capturing eye biometrics is commonly performed using video
entry system, are examined, implemented, and evaluated. The                                        cameras equipped with infrared or near-infrared light to produce
result, BlinkWrite2, is a text entry system for individuals with                                   corneal reflection. Video-based capturing techniques are more
severe motor impairment. Since the ability to blink is often                                       suitable for use in interactive systems than those based on
preserved, even in severe conditions such as locked-in                                             Electro-OculoGraphy (EOG), scleral contact lens/search coil,
syndrome, BlinkWrite2 allows text entry and correction with                                        Photo-OculoGraphy (POG) or Video-OculoGraphy (VOG)
blinks as the only input modality. Advantages of BlinkWrite2                                       [Duchowski 2007; Gorodnichy 2004].
over its predecessor include an increase in text entry speed. In a                                 Most video-based eye tracking interfaces, when used for
user evaluation, 12 participants achieved an average text entry                                    computer input, are designed to simulate a standard pointing
rate of 5.3 wpm, representing a 16% increase over BlinkWrite                                       device such as a mouse. A common application is text entry. So
and a 657% increase over the next fastest video-based eye blink                                    called "eye typing" allows the user to enter text by looking at
text entry system reported in the literature.                                                      keys on a soft keyboard (a.k.a. an on-screen keyboard or virtual
ACM Classification: K.4.2 [Computer and Society]: Social                                           keyboard) [Majaranta and Räihä 2002]. Keys are typically
Issues – assistive technologies for persons with disabilities;                                     selected by holding the point of gaze (dwelling) on a key for a
H.5.2 [Information Interfaces and Presentation]: User Interfaces                                   predetermined period of time, such as 750 ms.
– input devices and strategies)                                                                    While existing eye typing systems present a practical method of
Keywords: Blink typing, hands free text-entry, eye typing,                                         communication to some members of the disabled community,
scanning ambiguous keyboard, assistive technologies, locked-in                                     they fail to include the most severely motor impaired. Especially
syndrome, alternative communication, blink input, single input                                     in the case of locked-in syndrome, movement of the eyes is
modality, blink detection                                                                          limited and often unreliable for use with eye trackers [Laureys et
                                                                                                   al. 2005; Leon-Carrion et al. 2002]. As a result, eye typing
1       Introduction                                                                               systems are not a reliable alternative for persons with these
Humans obtain considerable information through their eyes. For                                     disabilities, where blinking may be the only viable method of
eye typing, the Internet and other digital and information                                         eye-based communication.
technologies continue to enhance our experience as humans,
providing new ways to communicate with friends, colleagues,                                        Fortunately, most eye tracking systems include an adjunct
and loved ones. These technologies have tremendous potential                                       capability of detecting blinks, the rapid closing and opening of
for disabled persons whose conditions hinder their ability to                                      the eyelid. With regard to interface design, the challenge is to
communicate and threaten isolation. Disabilities, such as                                          accommodate text entry using only a single binary input:
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), cerebral palsy (CP), or                                       blinking. In this paper, we describe BlinkWrite2, an eye blink
locked-in syndrome (LIS), are severe and often lead to complete                                    text entry system.
loss of control over voluntary muscles, except the eye muscles,                                    1.2        Eye Blink Text Entry
rendering the individual paralyzed and mute.                                                       The Diving Bell and the Butterfly is the memoir of Jean-
The eyes, therefore, become an important input modality to                                         Dominique Bauby, editor in chief of Elle magazine, who entered
improve the quality of life of persons with a severe motor                                         a state of locked-in syndrome in 1995 after suffering a massive
impairment by offering a window of communication to the                                            stroke [Bauby 1998]. Under complete physical paralysis, his
outside world; a goal that is facilitated by enabling text entry                                   only method of communication was through the blink of his left
using the eyes.                                                                                    eye. Entering text for the memoir involved a transcriber reciting
                                                                                                   a frequency-ordered alphabet, until he chose a letter by blinking.
                                                                                                   The entire book took some 200,000 blinks to compose using this
                                                                                                   method. 1 A typical word took two minutes to write (i.e., text
                                                                                                   entry speed = 0.5 wpm). Not only is this prohibitively slow, text
                                                                                                   composition required two people.
                                                                                                   To our knowledge, there are only two examples in the literature
Copyright © 2010 by the Association for Computing Machinery, Inc.                                  of text entry using blinks as the sole input modality; i.e., video-
Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or              based system without tracking eye movement.
classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed
for commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the             Su et al. [2008] describe an eye blink-based communication aid
first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than ACM must be                for severely disabled individuals. Their proposed system
honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on
servers, or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee.
                                                                                                   1
Request permissions from Permissions Dept, ACM Inc., fax +1 (212) 869-0481 or e-mail                   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving_bell_and_the_butterfly
permissions@acm.org.
ETRA 2010, Austin, TX, March 22 – 24, 2010.
© 2010 ACM 978-1-60558-994-7/10/0003 $10.00

                                                                                             339
consists of task-based menu selection of several daily necessities              the selected keys, even if the full word is entered. However, as
such as issuing voiced messages, typing, home appliance                         long as the word is in the system's dictionary, it is guaranteed to
control, web surfing, etc. Row-column scanning was used to                      be present in the word-selection region.
increase the rate of item selection, as with other single-switch
input methods [Baljko and Tam 2006; Lesher et al. 1998;
Venkatagiri 1999]. Upon selection of a task, related options or
sub-tasks were displayed on the screen. For the typing task, a
scanning keyboard with three-level selection (a.k.a. block,
group, or quadrant scanning [Bhattacharya et al. 2008; Lin et al.
2007]) and scanning intervals of two seconds was evaluated.
Participants were asked to type a set phrase “ci lab” with their
blinks. A text entry rate of 0.6 words per minute (wpm)2 was
reported.
BlinkWriter [Krolak and Strumillo 2008] replaces the popular
automated scanning method for selection-traversal with a blink-
pattern-based one. Voluntary blinks (duration > 200 ms) are
classified as long blinks and are used for advancing to the next
row and column. A row or column selection occurs if a new
blink is not detected in two seconds. Therefore, typing a letter
involves blinking to reach the desired row, delaying for
selection, blinking to reach the desired column, and a final delay
for letter selection. Letters are arranged based on frequency of
occurrence in Polish. An average entry time of 10.7 seconds per                           Figure 1. BlinkWrite experimental interface
character, or 0.7 wpm 2 was reported. Importantly, these systems                A key aspect of the design of BlinkWrite was choosing the
do not provide an integrated text correction mechanism (i.e.,                   optimal number of letter keys and the letter assignment across
without selection of such a function in a menu outside of the                   keys. "Optimal" was defined as a design that minimizes the
keyboard itself).                                                               average number of scan steps per character (SPC) required to
In the absence of speech, interactive conversation is tolerable                 enter text in English. In searching for an optimal design, we
only if it achieves a minimum rate of 3 wpm [Darragh and                        used a frequency-ordered list of the 9,025 most-common words
Witten 1992]. BlinkWrite [MacKenzie and Ashtiani (in press)],                   in English, as used in previous text entry research [Silfverberg et
the first prototype, met the minimum requirements by reaching                   al. 2000]. The design in Figure 1 has SPC = 1.713.
novice entry speeds of 4.8 wpm. BlinkWrite2 was developed to
improve that speed.                                                             3     BlinkWrite2
                                                                                BlinkWrite was developed as an extension of a scanning
In the following section, we provide a brief description of the                 ambiguous keyboard, inheriting its design principles and
operation of BlinkWrite. This is followed with a description and                augmenting it with duration-based blink selection, error
evaluation of the improvements leading to BlinkWrite2.                          correction, and auditory feedback. BlinkWrite2 is a modified
2     BlinkWrite                                                                and improved version of BlinkWrite; these modifications involve
BlinkWrite is a one-key text entry method using a scanning                      changes to the layout and operation of BlinkWrite. In this
ambiguous keyboard (SAK). It combines the most demanding                        section, we summarize the operation of BlinkWrite2, noting
requirement of a scanning keyboard (one switch input) with the                  areas of improvement over the earlier version.
most appealing feature of an ambiguous keyboard (one keypress                   3.1     Implementation
per character).                                                                 BlinkWrite2 captures eye blinks using a TM3 eye tracker from
However, instead of using a physical key, BlinkWrite uses blinks                EyeTech Digital Systems (http://www.eyetechds.com/). The
to select virtual keys that are scanned, or highlighted in                      device is bundled with QuickGlance software that acts as a high
sequence. The interface is shown in Figure 1.                                   level hardware driver and provides general control over eye
                                                                                tracking, data capture, system setup, and calibration. An
BlinkWrite includes two regions, a letter-selection region and a
                                                                                additional API, QuickLink, allows further customization of the
word-selection region. The letter selection region includes four
                                                                                interface and direct access to raw image data. In BlinkWrite, a
virtual keys. The 26 letters of the English alphabet are
                                                                                background application called TrackerSetup was developed
distributed across three keys. The fourth key is a [space] key.
                                                                                which modified control variables of QuickGlance to enable
The keys are scanned cyclically with letters selected by blinking
                                                                                blink clicking and to disable eye movement tracking. However,
when the desired key is highlighted. With each selection, a word
                                                                                TrackerSetup relied on QuickGlance for blink detection,
list is built from the current key sequence and is presented in the
                                                                                auditory feedback, and interval durations.
word-selection region. Scanning switches to the word-selection
region when the user selects the [space] key. This is done after                QuickGlance provides a large set of features, designed for
selecting all letter keys in a word, or sooner if the desired word              general purpose eye tracking; these features, while sufficient for
appears early. Because the letter keys are ambiguous (as with a                 development of BlinkWrite, impose limitations for BlinkWrite2
mobile phone keypad), there may be multiple words matching                      implementation. For instance, BlinkWrite2 needs three action
                                                                                intervals while QuickGlance only supports two action intervals
2
  It has been a convention dating back to the 1920s to define "word" in         to satisfy its general task of simulating left and right mouse
"words per minute" as five characters, including letters, punctuation,          buttons.
etc.[Yamada 1980]




                                                                          340
In BlinkWrite2, TrackerSetup was replaced by BlinkCapture, an
application we developed to gain direct access to the image data
of the eyes. This approach permitted great flexibility and
allowed code to be written for blink detection, interval
calculations, and auditory feedback. BlinkCapture continually
surveys the image data of the eyes and reports their visibility.
Upon detection of a blink (i.e., both eyes are closed), a timer
starts to record its duration, stopping when at least one eye is
opened.
3.1.1     Blinkwrite2 Prototype Software
In designing BlinkWrite2 to be faster and more efficient, the
model of BlinkWrite was reviewed to find areas of possible
improvement. It became evident that a reduction of SPC
improves the upper limit text entry speed of the system
(discussed in detail in section 3.1.6). This reduction was studied
and applied to both regions of the system: letter-selection and
word-selection.
Within the letter selection region, the [space] key was used as a
method of ending letter-selection and moving to the word-
selection region. However, since the system had to scan over                          Figure 2. BlinkWrite2's graphical user interface
this key in every cycle, it resulted in unnecessary overhead.                Values chosen for lower and upper bounds of other intervals are
Another disadvantage of the [space] key was the extra scans to               also based on the results of the pilot study and reflect the
reach it after the letter selection was finished. For instance for a         intervals considered most comfortable for issuing commands
word ending in letters “a” to “h”, it took an extra three scans to           using blinks. These blinks are named based on their assigned
reach the [space] key and proceed to the word-selection region.              action in BlinkWrite2. Blinks of durations between 140 ms and
Further, running all the words in our dictionary through an                  540 ms are classified as “selection blinks”. Blink of 540 ms to
algorithm and assuming early word selection opportunities are                1200 ms are “jump blinks”. Blinks longer than 1200 ms are
always taken, 26% of words end on the first key, 28% on second               “deletion blinks”.
key, and the remaining 46% on the third key.
                                                                             The decision to assign the deletion operation to the last interval
With these considerations, we introduced a new command,                      (blink duration > 1200 ms) is based on results of BlinkWrite
referred to as “jump”, to jump to the word-selection region as               prototype which reported an average of 2.2 corrections per
soon as the word needs to be chosen. To access this command, a               phrase. Since a jump command is issued at least five times per
new blink interval is implemented in the system.                             phrase (at the end of typing each word), it is reasonable to assign
Words in the word-selection region were ordered based on                     it a lower interval to optimize overall speed of the system.
frequency of occurrence. Word selection suffered mainly from
the linear scanning of the list. The word-selection region was               3.1.3     Context Sensitive Commands
redesigned to support column-row scanning of the words to                    Since the commands are assigned to time intervals, they directly
reduce the scans required to reach the desired word; effectively,            affect the performance of the system. As a result, ensuring their
this reduces the overall SPC of the system. However, column-                 usefulness across the two regions of the interface is important.
row scanning also reduces the overall text entry speed by                    Further, design decisions must keep the commands simple,
increasing the selections per scan step (SPS), since extra                   intuitive, and consistent. For instance, the jump operation is used
selections are required to select appropriate rows. The resulting            more frequently than delete in the letter-selection region; upon
layout for BlinkWrite2 is shown in Figure 2.                                 discovering that delete is more prevalent in the word-selection
                                                                             region, it is logical to design the system so that delete is assigned
3.1.2     Blinking Intervals                                                 a shorter interval (replace jump’s assigned interval) once
In BlinkWrite2, blinks are classified into four intervals based on           scanning moves to the word selection region. This dynamic
duration. To accommodate the new “jump” command, a new                       assignment of commands to intervals is confusing and
interval is added to the three existing intervals of BlinkWrite and          unintuitive to the users who are already cognitively involved in a
all lower and upper bounds are adjusted.                                     timed selection task. With these considerations, we designed the
                                                                             commands to always remain in their respective intervals but act
Blinks of less than 140 ms are ignored as they are attributed to
                                                                             according to what is intuitively expected. A summary of actions
involuntary blinks and occasional false positives in blink
                                                                             and context is provided in Table 1.
detection. This threshold is based on a pilot study to find a
reasonable threshold, separating voluntary and involuntary                   The select command is used consistently for selection. The new
blinks without sacrificing responsiveness of the system.                     jump command allows jumping to the word list once letter
BlinkWrite used a 200 ms threshold in accordance with previous               selection is finished. While the columns in the word-selection
research [Grauman et al. 2003; Jacob 1990]; however, during the              region are scanned, a jump command causes a jump to the first
pilot study this value was found to be too conservative and often            column allowing a missed opportunity for column selection to
voluntary blinks, causing frustration.                                       be corrected.




                                                                       341
Context/Action         Select           Jump             Delete              Auditory stimuli are generated at the beginning of intervals of
                                                                             all commands. For a selection attempt, the feedback is generated
  During letter        Select a     Jump to word         Delete a            at 140 ms. See Figure 3b. Figure 3c and Figure 3d provide
   selection            letter          list           letter/word           examples of jump and delete blinks respectively; note how in
During word list       Select a      Jump to first     Delete last           addition to the feedback related to their intervals, the feedback
column selection       column          column            letter              from previous intervals is also generated. This effect is required
                                                                             since the action intended by the blink is not known until the
                                 Jump to                                     blink has ended.
  During word          Select a                 Delete last
                                 previous
   selection            word                      letter
                                 column
    Table 1. Summary of command action based on context
Similarly if a column selection was intended but missed,                     (a)
resulting in the next column being selected, issuing a jump
provides a chance for correction by jumping to the previous
column.
Deleting during letter selection will delete the last letter or the          (b)
last word using the method discussed in the next section.
Attempting a delete in the word-selection region means either
the word is mistyped or a jump was issued too early; therefore,
the last typed letter is deleted and scanning returns to the letter
                                                                             (c)
selection region.
3.1.4     Error Correction
The delete operation remains the same as in BlinkWrite. Both
single-letter delete and word delete are supported. The deletion
                                                                             (d)
algorithm includes a mechanism to avoid lengthy and frustrating
sequences of single-letter deletes. Briefly, a delete operation
removes either the last keystroke (letter) if input is in the middle                 Figure 3. Auditory feedback and blink durations.
of a word, or the last word if input is between words. If a single-           (a) involuntary blink <140 ms (no feedback) (b) select blink of
letter delete is followed immediately by another delete, the                    duration 400 ms with auditory feedback at 140 ms (c) jump
effect is to remove the rest of the keystrokes for the current                blink of duration 800 ms with auditory feedback at 140 ms and
word. The next delete operation would remove the preceding                       540 ms (d) delete blink of duration 1400 ms with auditory
word, and so on.                                                                         feedback at 140 ms, 540 ms, and 1200 ms
3.1.5     Auditory Feedback                                                  The results of BlinkWrite experiments suggested that this poses
In the absence of feedback, users of eye tracking systems are left           no problem for the user. In fact, the consistency of having
guessing whether the system captured their intended input                    distinct auditory signals at the 140 ms, 540 ms, and 1200 ms
correctly. Since input with BlinkWrite2 involves keeping the                 points helps users accurately learn and perform the available
eyes closed for a period of time, visual feedback can be missed.             action commands.
Another problem arises when system commands are performed
based on the duration of blinks. It is difficult for users to adapt          3.1.6     Upper Limit Text Entry Speed.
to and learn the timing by practice. Auditory feedback is used in            The timing interval inherent with scanning keyboards places a
BlinkWrite2 in a manner that informs and attunes users of the                strict upper limit on entry speed – a limit that is governed by the
exact time an operation is committed.                                        design of the keyboard, rather than a person's proficiency in
                                                                             using it. For blink-based systems using a scanning ambiguous
BlinkWrite supported only selection and deletion. With the                   keyboard, as described here, the upper limit is given by:
added complexities of a third action (i.e., jump), it is more
important to utilize sounds that are intuitive (e.g., sound of                                                                             (1)
recycle bin in the Microsoft Windows XP) and are as distinct as
possible. Since the sounds play at the beginning of each interval,           where,
sounds of each preceding interval are played before the sound of
current interval. See Figure 3. It is therefore important for the              S = upper limit for text entry speed in wpm
duration of the sounds to be short to avoid overlap.                           SI = scanning interval in milliseconds
Several sets of sounds were created and subjected to a pilot                   SPC = number of scan steps per character
study. One set was chosen for BlinkWrite2. The “select” sound                  SPS = number of selections per scan step
(duration = 30 ms) is softer than a regular mouse click. Jump                  BT = minimum blink time for selection in milliseconds
and delete sounds (durations = 200 ms) were designed to
                                                                             BlinkWrite had SPC = 1.713, SPS = 0.627, and BT = 200 ms.
contrast each other (e.g., sounds of insertion and removal of
                                                                             Assuming SI = 700, BlinkWrite’s upper text entry speed was
USB devices in Microsoft Windows XP).
                                                                             8.5 wpm. BlinkWrite2’s design modifications and interval
The timing of the auditory feedback with respect to the blink                adjustments resulted in SPC = 1.122, SPS = 0.856, and BT = 140
dynamics is illustrated in Figure 3. For completeness, an                    ms. Therefore, SPC is reduced by 35%, while a negative side
involuntary blink of <140 ms duration is included in the figure              effect of 14% increase on SPS is incurred.
(Figure 3a).




                                                                       342
The upper text entry speed of BlinkWrite2 is:                                 adjusted accordingly, to achieve an optimal lock on their eyes,
                                                                              evident by a crosshair displayed inside the image of the eyes in
                                                                              QuickGlance software.
                                                                  (2)
                                                                              Participants were allowed to enter a few trial phrases to become
                                                                              familiar with the selection and correction methods and the
This shows that BlinkWrite2’s upper limit text entry speed is                 corresponding audio feedback. For the experiment, data
53% higher than that of BlinkWrite. While these values are                    collection began with the first selection blink for each phrase
promising, a user study is required to determine how the new                  and ended upon completion of that phrase. The phrases were
system performs in practice.                                                  chosen randomly from a standard set of 500 phrases for
                                                                              evaluating text entry systems [MacKenzie and Soukoreff 2003].
4     Methodology                                                             Phrase lengths ranged from 16 characters to 43 characters
                                                                              (mean = 28.6). A separate scan steps per character analysis was
                                                                              done of the phrase set. The result was SPC = 1.850, making the
4.1     Participants                                                          phrases, on average, more complicated than English in general.
Twelve volunteer participants ranging in age from 22 years to 31              (BlinkWrite2 System has SPC = 1.121) Although, this might
years (mean = 26, SD = 2.7) were recruited. Five were female,                 seem like a minor point, the phrases used in evaluating systems
seven male. All were daily users of computers, reporting 4 to 10              like BlinkWrite2 play a critical role. For example, it would be
hours of usage per day (mean = 7, SD = 3.4). Three used                       relatively easy to concoct phrases using words with low SPC
corrective lenses (2 females, 1 male). None had prior experience              values, and thereby obtain artificially inflated results. This was
using BlinkWrite or BlinkWrite2.                                              not done. If anything, using a phrase set with a higher SPC than
                                                                              English will yield results on the conservative side. Participants
4.2     Apparatus                                                             were allowed to rest at their discretion between phrases. The
The EyeTech Digital Systems TM3 eye tracker (described                        QuickGlance software was checked after each break to ensure
above) was connected to a standard Microsoft Windows XP                       proper blink detection; adjustments were applied if necessary.
notebook with a 2.0 GHz Intel Core2 duo CPU and 4 GB of                       After completing the experiment, participants were given a
memory. The BlinkWrite2 application was displayed on an                       questionnaire soliciting demographic information (results cited
external 15" LCD monitor. The eye tracker was raised on a book                below) and their impressions of the most suitable scanning
and a notebook case to achieve an optimal angle for eye                       interval.
detection. The setup is shown in Figure 4.
                                                                              4.4     Design
                                                                              The experiment included a single independent variable, scanning
                                                                              interval, with three levels: 700 ms, 850 ms, and 1000 ms. As we
                                                                              were interested in determining an optimal scanning interval for
                                                                              initial use of BlinkWrite2, counter-balancing was used in
                                                                              assigning the three levels to participants. To offset learning
                                                                              effects, two participants were assigned to each of the six
                                                                              possible orders for the three conditions. Values for the scanning
                                                                              interval were chosen based on results from the earlier BlinkWrite
                                                                              evaluation [MacKenzie and Ashtiani (in press)]. For each
                                                                              scanning interval condition, participants entered five phrases of
                                                                              text, yielding a total of 12 participants × 3 scanning intervals × 5
                                                                              phrases = 180 phrases of input.
                                                                              5     Results and Discussion
                                                                              5.1     Speed
                                                                              The grand mean for entry speed was 4.71 wpm. This alone is a
                                                                              promising result, given that entry involves only eye blinks. Of
    Figure 4. Experimental apparatus used for BlinkWrite2                     the three scanning intervals tested, the nominal setting of 850 ms
 evaluation. The EyeTech Digital Systems TM3 is identified by                 was fastest at 5.30 wpm. The other two scanning intervals were
                      the block arrow.                                        slightly slower: 4.57 wpm at 1000 ms and 4.27 wpm at 700 ms.
                                                                              See Figure 5.
4.3     Procedure
Prior to collecting data, the experimenter explained the task and             The effect of scanning interval on entry speed was statistically
demonstrated the software. Participants were instructed on the                significant (F2,22 = 12.17, p < .0001). Figure 5 also includes the
method of text entry, early word selection, error correction, and             upper limit for text entry speed at each scanning interval.
the audio feedback. They were instructed to enter the given                   The values were calculated using Equation 1 with SPC = 1.122,
phrases as quickly and accurately as possible and make                        SPS = 0.856, and BT = 140 ms. Although the upper limit
corrections only if an error is detected in the current or previous           increases with a decreasing scanning interval, participants were
word. Participants were asked to adjust the height of the chair               not able to demonstrate a corresponding increase in text entry
and their distance from the display to positions deemed                       speed.
comfortable. The angle and distance of the eye tracker were




                                                                        343
It is noteworthy, however, that with a scanning interval of                  Errors committed but corrected are reflected in the incidence of
850 ms, participants' text entry speed, at 5.30 wpm, was 48% of              delete blinks (> 1200 ms) for letter delete or word delete. The
the upper limit speed of 11.03 wpm and 16% higher than the                   results are shown in Figure 6. As with entry speed and error
corresponding figure for BlinkWrite. The next fastest eye blink              rates, the best performance occurred with a scanning interval of
text entry system, BlinkWriter [Krolak and Strumillo 2008],                  850 ms, with 0.78 letter deletes and 0.27 word deletes per phase.
reached the maximum speed of 0.7 wpm. BlinkWrite2 shows a                    (Recall that the mean phrase length was 28.6 characters,
657% increase in text entry speed when compared to                           equivalent to 5.7 words.) Delete blinks were three times as
BlinkWriter.                                                                 prevalent with a scanning interval of 700 ms.
                                                                             5.3     Optimal Scanning Interval
                                                                             It seems the three levels chosen for the scanning intervals were
                                                                             appropriate in the sense that they bracketed user behaviour.
                                                                             Performance overall was best with a scanning interval of 850
                                                                             ms: entry speed was fastest, error rate was lowest, and letter
                                                                             deletes and word deletes were lowest. Participants' performance
                                                                             suffered at the faster (700 ms) and slower (1000 ms) scanning
                                                                             intervals. Our observations reaffirm the nominal value of about
                                                                             850 ms as being preferred for initial use of BlinkWrite2. Of
                                                                             course with practice, the situation would change. Simpson and
                                                                             Koester, for example, used an adaptive scanning interval
                                                                             [Simpson and Koester 1999]. As expertise developed, the
                                                                             scanning interval was incrementally reduced according to user
                                                                             performance. Optimal performance was achieved at 525 ms.
                                                                             With practice, users of BlinkWrite2 could, no doubt, work
                                                                             effectively with a faster scanning interval and thereby achieve
Figure 5. Text entry speed by scanning interval. Error bars show             higher text entry throughput. Of course the scanning interval
                            ±1 SE.                                           with BlinkWrite2 is slightly different than with typical scanning
We consider this a promising result, particularly in view of the             keyboards. BlinkWrite2 selections occur through blinks of
fact that each participant entered only five phrases for each                duration 140 ms to 540 ms. With each blink, the scanning timer
scanning interval. No doubt, with continued practice entry                   is restarted, making the full duration of the scanning interval
speeds would increase toward the upper limit.                                available again for a subsequent selection in the same scan if the
                                                                             next letter is on the same key. So, faster scanning intervals do
5.2     Accuracy                                                             not bring the same sense of "urgency" with BlinkWrite2 as they
The accuracy in participants' responses is revealed in two ways:             do with traditional scanning keyboards. Nevertheless, while
(i) the errors in the transcribed text and (ii) the errors committed         faster scanning intervals increase text entry throughput with
but corrected. The former were computed using the minimum                    traditional scanning keyboards, the connection is less direct with
string distance (MSD) method of comparing the presented text                 BlinkWrite2.
string with the transcribed text string [MacKenzie and Soukoreff
2002]. The error rates are quite low overall, as participants                5.4     Questionnaire
generally chose to correct errors during entry. In fact, 91.12% of           The questionnaire solicited participant responses on their level
all phrases had an error rate of 0%. Typically, if any errors were           of comfort in using the eye tracker, their eye fatigue, and their
left in the transcribed text, it was because an incorrect word was           preference for the scanning interval settings. Responses were
selected early in the phrase or the participant simply didn't look           rated on a 7-point Likert scale, where 1 is the least favorable
for or notice the error. Consequently, those transcribed text                response and 7 is the most favorable response. The results are
phrases that contained errors, tended to have a large error rate             shown in Figure 7.
(e.g., 10% - 20%).




                                                                                 Figure 7. Results of the questionnaire for comfort and
  Figure 6. Letter and word deletions per phrase by scanning                   preference. A response of 7 is most-favourable, and 1 least-
               interval. Error bars show ±1 SE.                                              favourable. Error bars = ±1 SE.



                                                                       344
83% of participants rated the medium scanning interval of 850             LAUREYS, S., PELLAS, F., VAN EECKHOUT, P., GHORBEL, S.,
ms higher than the other two settings. One of the most prevalent              SCHNAKERS, C., PERRIN, F., BERRÉ, J., FAYMONVILLE, M.
complaints in BlinkWrite was the fatigue caused by slow                       E., PANTKE, K. H., DAMAS, F., LAMY, M., MOONEN, G., and
scanning of the candidate word list. Overall, 75% of the users of             GOLDMAN, S. 2005. The locked-in syndrome: What is it
BlinkWrite reported a higher than average (average = score of 4)              like to be conscious but paralyzed and voiceless?, Progress
eye fatigue during the experiment. By introducing the column-                 in Brain Research, 150, 495 - 511.
row scanning method for word selection, and more accurate
blink capture by developing BlinkCapture, only 16% of                     LEON-CARRION, J., VAN EECKHOUT, P., DOMINGUEZ-MORALES,
BlinkWrite2 users reported a higher than average eye fatigue;                 M. D., and PEREZ-SANTAMARIA, F. J. 2002. The locked-in
67% of users felt comfortable using the eye tracker for                       syndrome: A syndrome looking for a therapy, Brain Injury,
interaction.                                                                  16, 571 - 582.
                                                                          LESHER, G., MOULTON, B., and HIGGINBOTHAM, J. 1998.
6    Conclusion
                                                                              Techniques for augmenting scanning communication,
Improvements to the design of BlinkWrite and generic scanning
                                                                              Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 14, 81 -101.
ambiguous keyboards were proposed. Changes to the layout,
interval and auditory feedback adjustments were implemented as            LIN, Y.-L., CHEN, M.-C., WU, Y.-P., YEH, Y.-M., and WANG, H.-
a new prototype called BlinkWrite2. In a user study to determine               P., A flexible on-screen keyboard: Dynamically adapting
the practical speed improvements, users achieved a mean text                   for individuals’ needs, in Universal Access in Human-
entry speed of 5.3 wpm. This represents a 16% increase over                    Computer Interaction. Applications and Services, Berlin:
BlinkWrite, and a 657% increase over the next fastest eye blink                Springer, 2007, 371 - 379.
text entry system reported in the literature. It is expected that
BlinkWrite2 holds promise as a viable text entry method for               MACKENZIE, I. S. and ASHTIANI, B. BlinkWrite: Efficient text
users with severe motor disabilities who are otherwise precluded             entry using eye blinks, Universal Access in the Information
from using computing technology for communication.                           Society (in press).
                                                                          MACKENZIE, I. S. and SOUKOREFF, R. W. 2002. A character-level
7    References
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BALJKO, M. and TAM, A. 2006. Indirect text entry using one or
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                                                                             Human-computer Interaction – NordiCHI 2002, New York:
    Conference on Assistive Technologies - ASSETS 2006, New
                                                                             ACM, 243 - 246.
    York: ACM, 18 - 25.
                                                                          MACKENZIE, I. S. and SOUKOREFF, R. W. 2003. Phrase sets for
BAUBY, J. D., The diving bell and the butterfly. New York:
                                                                             evaluating text entry techniques, in Extended Abstracts of
   Vintage International, 1998.
                                                                             the ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing
BHATTACHARYA, S., SAMANTA, D., and BASU, A. 2008. User                       Systems - CHI 2003, New York: ACM, 754 - 755.
   errors on scanning keyboards: Empirical study, model and
                                                                          MAJARANTA, P. and RÄIHÄ, K.-J. 2002. Twenty years of eye
   design principles, Interacting with Computers, 20, 406 -
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DARRAGH, J. J. and WITTEN, I. H., The reactive keyboard.                     Applications - ETRA 2002, New York: ACM, 15 - 22.
   Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
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DUCHOWSKI, A., Eye tracking methodology theory and practice                    Predicting text entry speed on mobile phones. In
   2nd edition, London: Springer, 2007.                                        Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors
                                                                               in Computing Systems – CHI 2000, New York: ACM, 9 -
GORODNICHY, D. O. 2004. Towards automatic retrieval of blink-                  16.
   based lexicon for persons suffered from brain-stem injury
   using video cameras. In Proceedings of the 2004                        SIMPSON, R. C. and KOESTER, H. H. 1999. Adaptive one-switch
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   G. R. 2003. Communication via eye blinks and eyebrow                       implementation of an eye-blink-based communication aid
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JACOB, R. J. K. 1990. What you look at is what you get: Eye               VENKATAGIRI, H. S. 1999. Efficient keyboard layouts for
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KROLAK, A., and STRUMILLO, P. 2008. Vision-based eye blink                YAMADA, H. 1980. A historical study of typewriters and typing
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Ashtiani Blink Write2 An Improved Text Entry Method Using Eye Blinks

  • 1. BlinkWrite2: An Improved Text Entry Method Using Eye Blinks Behrooz Ashtiani & I. Scott MacKenzie Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering York University Toronto, CANADA {abehrooz, mack}@cse.yorku.ca Abstract 1.1 Eye Tracking and Eye Typing Areas of design improvements for BlinkWrite, an eye blink text Capturing eye biometrics is commonly performed using video entry system, are examined, implemented, and evaluated. The cameras equipped with infrared or near-infrared light to produce result, BlinkWrite2, is a text entry system for individuals with corneal reflection. Video-based capturing techniques are more severe motor impairment. Since the ability to blink is often suitable for use in interactive systems than those based on preserved, even in severe conditions such as locked-in Electro-OculoGraphy (EOG), scleral contact lens/search coil, syndrome, BlinkWrite2 allows text entry and correction with Photo-OculoGraphy (POG) or Video-OculoGraphy (VOG) blinks as the only input modality. Advantages of BlinkWrite2 [Duchowski 2007; Gorodnichy 2004]. over its predecessor include an increase in text entry speed. In a Most video-based eye tracking interfaces, when used for user evaluation, 12 participants achieved an average text entry computer input, are designed to simulate a standard pointing rate of 5.3 wpm, representing a 16% increase over BlinkWrite device such as a mouse. A common application is text entry. So and a 657% increase over the next fastest video-based eye blink called "eye typing" allows the user to enter text by looking at text entry system reported in the literature. keys on a soft keyboard (a.k.a. an on-screen keyboard or virtual ACM Classification: K.4.2 [Computer and Society]: Social keyboard) [Majaranta and Räihä 2002]. Keys are typically Issues – assistive technologies for persons with disabilities; selected by holding the point of gaze (dwelling) on a key for a H.5.2 [Information Interfaces and Presentation]: User Interfaces predetermined period of time, such as 750 ms. – input devices and strategies) While existing eye typing systems present a practical method of Keywords: Blink typing, hands free text-entry, eye typing, communication to some members of the disabled community, scanning ambiguous keyboard, assistive technologies, locked-in they fail to include the most severely motor impaired. Especially syndrome, alternative communication, blink input, single input in the case of locked-in syndrome, movement of the eyes is modality, blink detection limited and often unreliable for use with eye trackers [Laureys et al. 2005; Leon-Carrion et al. 2002]. As a result, eye typing 1 Introduction systems are not a reliable alternative for persons with these Humans obtain considerable information through their eyes. For disabilities, where blinking may be the only viable method of eye typing, the Internet and other digital and information eye-based communication. technologies continue to enhance our experience as humans, providing new ways to communicate with friends, colleagues, Fortunately, most eye tracking systems include an adjunct and loved ones. These technologies have tremendous potential capability of detecting blinks, the rapid closing and opening of for disabled persons whose conditions hinder their ability to the eyelid. With regard to interface design, the challenge is to communicate and threaten isolation. Disabilities, such as accommodate text entry using only a single binary input: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), cerebral palsy (CP), or blinking. In this paper, we describe BlinkWrite2, an eye blink locked-in syndrome (LIS), are severe and often lead to complete text entry system. loss of control over voluntary muscles, except the eye muscles, 1.2 Eye Blink Text Entry rendering the individual paralyzed and mute. The Diving Bell and the Butterfly is the memoir of Jean- The eyes, therefore, become an important input modality to Dominique Bauby, editor in chief of Elle magazine, who entered improve the quality of life of persons with a severe motor a state of locked-in syndrome in 1995 after suffering a massive impairment by offering a window of communication to the stroke [Bauby 1998]. Under complete physical paralysis, his outside world; a goal that is facilitated by enabling text entry only method of communication was through the blink of his left using the eyes. eye. Entering text for the memoir involved a transcriber reciting a frequency-ordered alphabet, until he chose a letter by blinking. The entire book took some 200,000 blinks to compose using this method. 1 A typical word took two minutes to write (i.e., text entry speed = 0.5 wpm). Not only is this prohibitively slow, text composition required two people. To our knowledge, there are only two examples in the literature Copyright © 2010 by the Association for Computing Machinery, Inc. of text entry using blinks as the sole input modality; i.e., video- Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or based system without tracking eye movement. classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the Su et al. [2008] describe an eye blink-based communication aid first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than ACM must be for severely disabled individuals. Their proposed system honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers, or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. 1 Request permissions from Permissions Dept, ACM Inc., fax +1 (212) 869-0481 or e-mail http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving_bell_and_the_butterfly permissions@acm.org. ETRA 2010, Austin, TX, March 22 – 24, 2010. © 2010 ACM 978-1-60558-994-7/10/0003 $10.00 339
  • 2. consists of task-based menu selection of several daily necessities the selected keys, even if the full word is entered. However, as such as issuing voiced messages, typing, home appliance long as the word is in the system's dictionary, it is guaranteed to control, web surfing, etc. Row-column scanning was used to be present in the word-selection region. increase the rate of item selection, as with other single-switch input methods [Baljko and Tam 2006; Lesher et al. 1998; Venkatagiri 1999]. Upon selection of a task, related options or sub-tasks were displayed on the screen. For the typing task, a scanning keyboard with three-level selection (a.k.a. block, group, or quadrant scanning [Bhattacharya et al. 2008; Lin et al. 2007]) and scanning intervals of two seconds was evaluated. Participants were asked to type a set phrase “ci lab” with their blinks. A text entry rate of 0.6 words per minute (wpm)2 was reported. BlinkWriter [Krolak and Strumillo 2008] replaces the popular automated scanning method for selection-traversal with a blink- pattern-based one. Voluntary blinks (duration > 200 ms) are classified as long blinks and are used for advancing to the next row and column. A row or column selection occurs if a new blink is not detected in two seconds. Therefore, typing a letter involves blinking to reach the desired row, delaying for selection, blinking to reach the desired column, and a final delay for letter selection. Letters are arranged based on frequency of occurrence in Polish. An average entry time of 10.7 seconds per Figure 1. BlinkWrite experimental interface character, or 0.7 wpm 2 was reported. Importantly, these systems A key aspect of the design of BlinkWrite was choosing the do not provide an integrated text correction mechanism (i.e., optimal number of letter keys and the letter assignment across without selection of such a function in a menu outside of the keys. "Optimal" was defined as a design that minimizes the keyboard itself). average number of scan steps per character (SPC) required to In the absence of speech, interactive conversation is tolerable enter text in English. In searching for an optimal design, we only if it achieves a minimum rate of 3 wpm [Darragh and used a frequency-ordered list of the 9,025 most-common words Witten 1992]. BlinkWrite [MacKenzie and Ashtiani (in press)], in English, as used in previous text entry research [Silfverberg et the first prototype, met the minimum requirements by reaching al. 2000]. The design in Figure 1 has SPC = 1.713. novice entry speeds of 4.8 wpm. BlinkWrite2 was developed to improve that speed. 3 BlinkWrite2 BlinkWrite was developed as an extension of a scanning In the following section, we provide a brief description of the ambiguous keyboard, inheriting its design principles and operation of BlinkWrite. This is followed with a description and augmenting it with duration-based blink selection, error evaluation of the improvements leading to BlinkWrite2. correction, and auditory feedback. BlinkWrite2 is a modified 2 BlinkWrite and improved version of BlinkWrite; these modifications involve BlinkWrite is a one-key text entry method using a scanning changes to the layout and operation of BlinkWrite. In this ambiguous keyboard (SAK). It combines the most demanding section, we summarize the operation of BlinkWrite2, noting requirement of a scanning keyboard (one switch input) with the areas of improvement over the earlier version. most appealing feature of an ambiguous keyboard (one keypress 3.1 Implementation per character). BlinkWrite2 captures eye blinks using a TM3 eye tracker from However, instead of using a physical key, BlinkWrite uses blinks EyeTech Digital Systems (http://www.eyetechds.com/). The to select virtual keys that are scanned, or highlighted in device is bundled with QuickGlance software that acts as a high sequence. The interface is shown in Figure 1. level hardware driver and provides general control over eye tracking, data capture, system setup, and calibration. An BlinkWrite includes two regions, a letter-selection region and a additional API, QuickLink, allows further customization of the word-selection region. The letter selection region includes four interface and direct access to raw image data. In BlinkWrite, a virtual keys. The 26 letters of the English alphabet are background application called TrackerSetup was developed distributed across three keys. The fourth key is a [space] key. which modified control variables of QuickGlance to enable The keys are scanned cyclically with letters selected by blinking blink clicking and to disable eye movement tracking. However, when the desired key is highlighted. With each selection, a word TrackerSetup relied on QuickGlance for blink detection, list is built from the current key sequence and is presented in the auditory feedback, and interval durations. word-selection region. Scanning switches to the word-selection region when the user selects the [space] key. This is done after QuickGlance provides a large set of features, designed for selecting all letter keys in a word, or sooner if the desired word general purpose eye tracking; these features, while sufficient for appears early. Because the letter keys are ambiguous (as with a development of BlinkWrite, impose limitations for BlinkWrite2 mobile phone keypad), there may be multiple words matching implementation. For instance, BlinkWrite2 needs three action intervals while QuickGlance only supports two action intervals 2 It has been a convention dating back to the 1920s to define "word" in to satisfy its general task of simulating left and right mouse "words per minute" as five characters, including letters, punctuation, buttons. etc.[Yamada 1980] 340
  • 3. In BlinkWrite2, TrackerSetup was replaced by BlinkCapture, an application we developed to gain direct access to the image data of the eyes. This approach permitted great flexibility and allowed code to be written for blink detection, interval calculations, and auditory feedback. BlinkCapture continually surveys the image data of the eyes and reports their visibility. Upon detection of a blink (i.e., both eyes are closed), a timer starts to record its duration, stopping when at least one eye is opened. 3.1.1 Blinkwrite2 Prototype Software In designing BlinkWrite2 to be faster and more efficient, the model of BlinkWrite was reviewed to find areas of possible improvement. It became evident that a reduction of SPC improves the upper limit text entry speed of the system (discussed in detail in section 3.1.6). This reduction was studied and applied to both regions of the system: letter-selection and word-selection. Within the letter selection region, the [space] key was used as a method of ending letter-selection and moving to the word- selection region. However, since the system had to scan over Figure 2. BlinkWrite2's graphical user interface this key in every cycle, it resulted in unnecessary overhead. Values chosen for lower and upper bounds of other intervals are Another disadvantage of the [space] key was the extra scans to also based on the results of the pilot study and reflect the reach it after the letter selection was finished. For instance for a intervals considered most comfortable for issuing commands word ending in letters “a” to “h”, it took an extra three scans to using blinks. These blinks are named based on their assigned reach the [space] key and proceed to the word-selection region. action in BlinkWrite2. Blinks of durations between 140 ms and Further, running all the words in our dictionary through an 540 ms are classified as “selection blinks”. Blink of 540 ms to algorithm and assuming early word selection opportunities are 1200 ms are “jump blinks”. Blinks longer than 1200 ms are always taken, 26% of words end on the first key, 28% on second “deletion blinks”. key, and the remaining 46% on the third key. The decision to assign the deletion operation to the last interval With these considerations, we introduced a new command, (blink duration > 1200 ms) is based on results of BlinkWrite referred to as “jump”, to jump to the word-selection region as prototype which reported an average of 2.2 corrections per soon as the word needs to be chosen. To access this command, a phrase. Since a jump command is issued at least five times per new blink interval is implemented in the system. phrase (at the end of typing each word), it is reasonable to assign Words in the word-selection region were ordered based on it a lower interval to optimize overall speed of the system. frequency of occurrence. Word selection suffered mainly from the linear scanning of the list. The word-selection region was 3.1.3 Context Sensitive Commands redesigned to support column-row scanning of the words to Since the commands are assigned to time intervals, they directly reduce the scans required to reach the desired word; effectively, affect the performance of the system. As a result, ensuring their this reduces the overall SPC of the system. However, column- usefulness across the two regions of the interface is important. row scanning also reduces the overall text entry speed by Further, design decisions must keep the commands simple, increasing the selections per scan step (SPS), since extra intuitive, and consistent. For instance, the jump operation is used selections are required to select appropriate rows. The resulting more frequently than delete in the letter-selection region; upon layout for BlinkWrite2 is shown in Figure 2. discovering that delete is more prevalent in the word-selection region, it is logical to design the system so that delete is assigned 3.1.2 Blinking Intervals a shorter interval (replace jump’s assigned interval) once In BlinkWrite2, blinks are classified into four intervals based on scanning moves to the word selection region. This dynamic duration. To accommodate the new “jump” command, a new assignment of commands to intervals is confusing and interval is added to the three existing intervals of BlinkWrite and unintuitive to the users who are already cognitively involved in a all lower and upper bounds are adjusted. timed selection task. With these considerations, we designed the commands to always remain in their respective intervals but act Blinks of less than 140 ms are ignored as they are attributed to according to what is intuitively expected. A summary of actions involuntary blinks and occasional false positives in blink and context is provided in Table 1. detection. This threshold is based on a pilot study to find a reasonable threshold, separating voluntary and involuntary The select command is used consistently for selection. The new blinks without sacrificing responsiveness of the system. jump command allows jumping to the word list once letter BlinkWrite used a 200 ms threshold in accordance with previous selection is finished. While the columns in the word-selection research [Grauman et al. 2003; Jacob 1990]; however, during the region are scanned, a jump command causes a jump to the first pilot study this value was found to be too conservative and often column allowing a missed opportunity for column selection to voluntary blinks, causing frustration. be corrected. 341
  • 4. Context/Action Select Jump Delete Auditory stimuli are generated at the beginning of intervals of all commands. For a selection attempt, the feedback is generated During letter Select a Jump to word Delete a at 140 ms. See Figure 3b. Figure 3c and Figure 3d provide selection letter list letter/word examples of jump and delete blinks respectively; note how in During word list Select a Jump to first Delete last addition to the feedback related to their intervals, the feedback column selection column column letter from previous intervals is also generated. This effect is required since the action intended by the blink is not known until the Jump to blink has ended. During word Select a Delete last previous selection word letter column Table 1. Summary of command action based on context Similarly if a column selection was intended but missed, (a) resulting in the next column being selected, issuing a jump provides a chance for correction by jumping to the previous column. Deleting during letter selection will delete the last letter or the (b) last word using the method discussed in the next section. Attempting a delete in the word-selection region means either the word is mistyped or a jump was issued too early; therefore, the last typed letter is deleted and scanning returns to the letter (c) selection region. 3.1.4 Error Correction The delete operation remains the same as in BlinkWrite. Both single-letter delete and word delete are supported. The deletion (d) algorithm includes a mechanism to avoid lengthy and frustrating sequences of single-letter deletes. Briefly, a delete operation removes either the last keystroke (letter) if input is in the middle Figure 3. Auditory feedback and blink durations. of a word, or the last word if input is between words. If a single- (a) involuntary blink <140 ms (no feedback) (b) select blink of letter delete is followed immediately by another delete, the duration 400 ms with auditory feedback at 140 ms (c) jump effect is to remove the rest of the keystrokes for the current blink of duration 800 ms with auditory feedback at 140 ms and word. The next delete operation would remove the preceding 540 ms (d) delete blink of duration 1400 ms with auditory word, and so on. feedback at 140 ms, 540 ms, and 1200 ms 3.1.5 Auditory Feedback The results of BlinkWrite experiments suggested that this poses In the absence of feedback, users of eye tracking systems are left no problem for the user. In fact, the consistency of having guessing whether the system captured their intended input distinct auditory signals at the 140 ms, 540 ms, and 1200 ms correctly. Since input with BlinkWrite2 involves keeping the points helps users accurately learn and perform the available eyes closed for a period of time, visual feedback can be missed. action commands. Another problem arises when system commands are performed based on the duration of blinks. It is difficult for users to adapt 3.1.6 Upper Limit Text Entry Speed. to and learn the timing by practice. Auditory feedback is used in The timing interval inherent with scanning keyboards places a BlinkWrite2 in a manner that informs and attunes users of the strict upper limit on entry speed – a limit that is governed by the exact time an operation is committed. design of the keyboard, rather than a person's proficiency in using it. For blink-based systems using a scanning ambiguous BlinkWrite supported only selection and deletion. With the keyboard, as described here, the upper limit is given by: added complexities of a third action (i.e., jump), it is more important to utilize sounds that are intuitive (e.g., sound of (1) recycle bin in the Microsoft Windows XP) and are as distinct as possible. Since the sounds play at the beginning of each interval, where, sounds of each preceding interval are played before the sound of current interval. See Figure 3. It is therefore important for the S = upper limit for text entry speed in wpm duration of the sounds to be short to avoid overlap. SI = scanning interval in milliseconds Several sets of sounds were created and subjected to a pilot SPC = number of scan steps per character study. One set was chosen for BlinkWrite2. The “select” sound SPS = number of selections per scan step (duration = 30 ms) is softer than a regular mouse click. Jump BT = minimum blink time for selection in milliseconds and delete sounds (durations = 200 ms) were designed to BlinkWrite had SPC = 1.713, SPS = 0.627, and BT = 200 ms. contrast each other (e.g., sounds of insertion and removal of Assuming SI = 700, BlinkWrite’s upper text entry speed was USB devices in Microsoft Windows XP). 8.5 wpm. BlinkWrite2’s design modifications and interval The timing of the auditory feedback with respect to the blink adjustments resulted in SPC = 1.122, SPS = 0.856, and BT = 140 dynamics is illustrated in Figure 3. For completeness, an ms. Therefore, SPC is reduced by 35%, while a negative side involuntary blink of <140 ms duration is included in the figure effect of 14% increase on SPS is incurred. (Figure 3a). 342
  • 5. The upper text entry speed of BlinkWrite2 is: adjusted accordingly, to achieve an optimal lock on their eyes, evident by a crosshair displayed inside the image of the eyes in QuickGlance software. (2) Participants were allowed to enter a few trial phrases to become familiar with the selection and correction methods and the This shows that BlinkWrite2’s upper limit text entry speed is corresponding audio feedback. For the experiment, data 53% higher than that of BlinkWrite. While these values are collection began with the first selection blink for each phrase promising, a user study is required to determine how the new and ended upon completion of that phrase. The phrases were system performs in practice. chosen randomly from a standard set of 500 phrases for evaluating text entry systems [MacKenzie and Soukoreff 2003]. 4 Methodology Phrase lengths ranged from 16 characters to 43 characters (mean = 28.6). A separate scan steps per character analysis was done of the phrase set. The result was SPC = 1.850, making the 4.1 Participants phrases, on average, more complicated than English in general. Twelve volunteer participants ranging in age from 22 years to 31 (BlinkWrite2 System has SPC = 1.121) Although, this might years (mean = 26, SD = 2.7) were recruited. Five were female, seem like a minor point, the phrases used in evaluating systems seven male. All were daily users of computers, reporting 4 to 10 like BlinkWrite2 play a critical role. For example, it would be hours of usage per day (mean = 7, SD = 3.4). Three used relatively easy to concoct phrases using words with low SPC corrective lenses (2 females, 1 male). None had prior experience values, and thereby obtain artificially inflated results. This was using BlinkWrite or BlinkWrite2. not done. If anything, using a phrase set with a higher SPC than English will yield results on the conservative side. Participants 4.2 Apparatus were allowed to rest at their discretion between phrases. The The EyeTech Digital Systems TM3 eye tracker (described QuickGlance software was checked after each break to ensure above) was connected to a standard Microsoft Windows XP proper blink detection; adjustments were applied if necessary. notebook with a 2.0 GHz Intel Core2 duo CPU and 4 GB of After completing the experiment, participants were given a memory. The BlinkWrite2 application was displayed on an questionnaire soliciting demographic information (results cited external 15" LCD monitor. The eye tracker was raised on a book below) and their impressions of the most suitable scanning and a notebook case to achieve an optimal angle for eye interval. detection. The setup is shown in Figure 4. 4.4 Design The experiment included a single independent variable, scanning interval, with three levels: 700 ms, 850 ms, and 1000 ms. As we were interested in determining an optimal scanning interval for initial use of BlinkWrite2, counter-balancing was used in assigning the three levels to participants. To offset learning effects, two participants were assigned to each of the six possible orders for the three conditions. Values for the scanning interval were chosen based on results from the earlier BlinkWrite evaluation [MacKenzie and Ashtiani (in press)]. For each scanning interval condition, participants entered five phrases of text, yielding a total of 12 participants × 3 scanning intervals × 5 phrases = 180 phrases of input. 5 Results and Discussion 5.1 Speed The grand mean for entry speed was 4.71 wpm. This alone is a promising result, given that entry involves only eye blinks. Of Figure 4. Experimental apparatus used for BlinkWrite2 the three scanning intervals tested, the nominal setting of 850 ms evaluation. The EyeTech Digital Systems TM3 is identified by was fastest at 5.30 wpm. The other two scanning intervals were the block arrow. slightly slower: 4.57 wpm at 1000 ms and 4.27 wpm at 700 ms. See Figure 5. 4.3 Procedure Prior to collecting data, the experimenter explained the task and The effect of scanning interval on entry speed was statistically demonstrated the software. Participants were instructed on the significant (F2,22 = 12.17, p < .0001). Figure 5 also includes the method of text entry, early word selection, error correction, and upper limit for text entry speed at each scanning interval. the audio feedback. They were instructed to enter the given The values were calculated using Equation 1 with SPC = 1.122, phrases as quickly and accurately as possible and make SPS = 0.856, and BT = 140 ms. Although the upper limit corrections only if an error is detected in the current or previous increases with a decreasing scanning interval, participants were word. Participants were asked to adjust the height of the chair not able to demonstrate a corresponding increase in text entry and their distance from the display to positions deemed speed. comfortable. The angle and distance of the eye tracker were 343
  • 6. It is noteworthy, however, that with a scanning interval of Errors committed but corrected are reflected in the incidence of 850 ms, participants' text entry speed, at 5.30 wpm, was 48% of delete blinks (> 1200 ms) for letter delete or word delete. The the upper limit speed of 11.03 wpm and 16% higher than the results are shown in Figure 6. As with entry speed and error corresponding figure for BlinkWrite. The next fastest eye blink rates, the best performance occurred with a scanning interval of text entry system, BlinkWriter [Krolak and Strumillo 2008], 850 ms, with 0.78 letter deletes and 0.27 word deletes per phase. reached the maximum speed of 0.7 wpm. BlinkWrite2 shows a (Recall that the mean phrase length was 28.6 characters, 657% increase in text entry speed when compared to equivalent to 5.7 words.) Delete blinks were three times as BlinkWriter. prevalent with a scanning interval of 700 ms. 5.3 Optimal Scanning Interval It seems the three levels chosen for the scanning intervals were appropriate in the sense that they bracketed user behaviour. Performance overall was best with a scanning interval of 850 ms: entry speed was fastest, error rate was lowest, and letter deletes and word deletes were lowest. Participants' performance suffered at the faster (700 ms) and slower (1000 ms) scanning intervals. Our observations reaffirm the nominal value of about 850 ms as being preferred for initial use of BlinkWrite2. Of course with practice, the situation would change. Simpson and Koester, for example, used an adaptive scanning interval [Simpson and Koester 1999]. As expertise developed, the scanning interval was incrementally reduced according to user performance. Optimal performance was achieved at 525 ms. With practice, users of BlinkWrite2 could, no doubt, work effectively with a faster scanning interval and thereby achieve Figure 5. Text entry speed by scanning interval. Error bars show higher text entry throughput. Of course the scanning interval ±1 SE. with BlinkWrite2 is slightly different than with typical scanning We consider this a promising result, particularly in view of the keyboards. BlinkWrite2 selections occur through blinks of fact that each participant entered only five phrases for each duration 140 ms to 540 ms. With each blink, the scanning timer scanning interval. No doubt, with continued practice entry is restarted, making the full duration of the scanning interval speeds would increase toward the upper limit. available again for a subsequent selection in the same scan if the next letter is on the same key. So, faster scanning intervals do 5.2 Accuracy not bring the same sense of "urgency" with BlinkWrite2 as they The accuracy in participants' responses is revealed in two ways: do with traditional scanning keyboards. Nevertheless, while (i) the errors in the transcribed text and (ii) the errors committed faster scanning intervals increase text entry throughput with but corrected. The former were computed using the minimum traditional scanning keyboards, the connection is less direct with string distance (MSD) method of comparing the presented text BlinkWrite2. string with the transcribed text string [MacKenzie and Soukoreff 2002]. The error rates are quite low overall, as participants 5.4 Questionnaire generally chose to correct errors during entry. In fact, 91.12% of The questionnaire solicited participant responses on their level all phrases had an error rate of 0%. Typically, if any errors were of comfort in using the eye tracker, their eye fatigue, and their left in the transcribed text, it was because an incorrect word was preference for the scanning interval settings. Responses were selected early in the phrase or the participant simply didn't look rated on a 7-point Likert scale, where 1 is the least favorable for or notice the error. Consequently, those transcribed text response and 7 is the most favorable response. The results are phrases that contained errors, tended to have a large error rate shown in Figure 7. (e.g., 10% - 20%). Figure 7. Results of the questionnaire for comfort and Figure 6. Letter and word deletions per phrase by scanning preference. A response of 7 is most-favourable, and 1 least- interval. Error bars show ±1 SE. favourable. Error bars = ±1 SE. 344
  • 7. 83% of participants rated the medium scanning interval of 850 LAUREYS, S., PELLAS, F., VAN EECKHOUT, P., GHORBEL, S., ms higher than the other two settings. One of the most prevalent SCHNAKERS, C., PERRIN, F., BERRÉ, J., FAYMONVILLE, M. complaints in BlinkWrite was the fatigue caused by slow E., PANTKE, K. H., DAMAS, F., LAMY, M., MOONEN, G., and scanning of the candidate word list. Overall, 75% of the users of GOLDMAN, S. 2005. The locked-in syndrome: What is it BlinkWrite reported a higher than average (average = score of 4) like to be conscious but paralyzed and voiceless?, Progress eye fatigue during the experiment. By introducing the column- in Brain Research, 150, 495 - 511. row scanning method for word selection, and more accurate blink capture by developing BlinkCapture, only 16% of LEON-CARRION, J., VAN EECKHOUT, P., DOMINGUEZ-MORALES, BlinkWrite2 users reported a higher than average eye fatigue; M. D., and PEREZ-SANTAMARIA, F. J. 2002. The locked-in 67% of users felt comfortable using the eye tracker for syndrome: A syndrome looking for a therapy, Brain Injury, interaction. 16, 571 - 582. LESHER, G., MOULTON, B., and HIGGINBOTHAM, J. 1998. 6 Conclusion Techniques for augmenting scanning communication, Improvements to the design of BlinkWrite and generic scanning Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 14, 81 -101. ambiguous keyboards were proposed. Changes to the layout, interval and auditory feedback adjustments were implemented as LIN, Y.-L., CHEN, M.-C., WU, Y.-P., YEH, Y.-M., and WANG, H.- a new prototype called BlinkWrite2. In a user study to determine P., A flexible on-screen keyboard: Dynamically adapting the practical speed improvements, users achieved a mean text for individuals’ needs, in Universal Access in Human- entry speed of 5.3 wpm. This represents a 16% increase over Computer Interaction. Applications and Services, Berlin: BlinkWrite, and a 657% increase over the next fastest eye blink Springer, 2007, 371 - 379. text entry system reported in the literature. It is expected that BlinkWrite2 holds promise as a viable text entry method for MACKENZIE, I. S. and ASHTIANI, B. BlinkWrite: Efficient text users with severe motor disabilities who are otherwise precluded entry using eye blinks, Universal Access in the Information from using computing technology for communication. Society (in press). MACKENZIE, I. S. and SOUKOREFF, R. W. 2002. A character-level 7 References error analysis technique for evaluating text entry methods. BALJKO, M. and TAM, A. 2006. Indirect text entry using one or In Proceedings of the Second Nordic Conference on two keys. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGACCESS Human-computer Interaction – NordiCHI 2002, New York: Conference on Assistive Technologies - ASSETS 2006, New ACM, 243 - 246. York: ACM, 18 - 25. MACKENZIE, I. S. and SOUKOREFF, R. W. 2003. 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