Small ruminant production

SMALL RUMINANTS & MANAGEMENT (AS 303)
BY PROF E.E. NDEMANISHO
DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE & PRODUCTION
SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE
P.O. BOX 3004, MOROGORO
TEL: 2604617, FAX: 2604562
MOB: 0762161056 OR 0715903903
EMAIL: ndema@suanet.ac.tz or ndemedith@gmail.com
Small ruminants (SR) include goats, sheep, llamas and alpacas. Sheep and goats form, next to
cattle, the most important group of ruminants in both temperate and tropical agriculture. They
serve a variety of functions, which vary in importance according to the area involved. Goats
and sheep have some virtues not possessed by cattle. One of the most important of these is
their ability to forage and survive in many areas, especially in the arid tropics, where cattle
would perform poorly. This is probably due to their superior water and nitrogen economy.
Cattle production, and goats and sheep production, should however, be regarded a
complementary rather than competitive. Whichever species makes the most efficient
utilization of grazing land and forage, and best meets the needs of the community is the best
species to use. The nature and availability of the grazing lands, the climate, type of
agriculture, demand for animal products and the relative economy or profitability will
determine which species is used.
Although closely related (belonging to the same tribe, Caprini) with several similar attributes,
goats and sheep are in many respects different animals. However goats belong to the genus
Capra and sheep the genus Ovis. They differ in importance and distribution (i.e. sheep can be
important than goats in some places and vice versa), type of production and production
potential, body shape and conformation, carcass composition and general behaviour. In view of
this, some sections of this compendium will treat them separately to avoid possible confusions.
Goats and sheep in the Tropics together account for approximately 34 per cent of the total
population of the world’s grazing ruminants. They have been associated with humans since the
dawn of history and this is reflected in their wide distribution in the Tropics.
Goats and sheep represent a valuable resource in the developing world. This resource however is
not being fully exploited. The development is constrained by lack of knowledge about the
animals and their potentials. Further research and the establishment of breeding programmes is
currently being encouraged worldwide to remedy this, especially amongst animal scientists. As
more knowledge becomes available, productivity is being increased and goats and sheep are
making greater contribution to the livestock industry in the tropics.
Africa has a population of 205 million sheep and 174 million goats representing approximately
17% and 31% of the world’s total, respectively (FAO, 1990). According to Mike Steel (1996),
of more than 689 million goats found in the world, nearly 80% are found in the developing

countries. Goats have often received a bad press (known historically as feral/stray goats, i.e. in
Australia) because they are sometimes associated with overgrazing, particularly in the more arid
regions of the world. However, this is a misleading of the situation because frequently the case
that the goats are surviving in areas that are already degraded and they are kept because they are
the only animals that will survive under those conditions (Mike Steel, 1996). Within Africa, the
distribution of these small ruminants varies widely, with a higher concentration found in dry
than in humid areas. These animals serve primarily as sources of meat, but also provide milk,
skins, manure, recreation and employment. Sheep and goats produce only about 16% of the
world’s meat, despite their high contribution to the total world livestock production.
African small ruminants produce only 14% of the world’s milk and 15% of the world’s skin.
The ownership of small ruminants is regarded as an investment. They are sold to meet
compelling family financial obligations or slaughtered for home consumption at home or at
festivals. The size of the animals makes them ideal for families. Little capital investment in
buildings or other materials is required for their upkeep and space and maintenance requirement
are low. They are suitable for family consumption in the absence of refrigeration for storage, or
adequate transportation and their reproductive efficiency is high. However, they are still given
little attention in most rural areas, being left as stray animals. Until recently, small ruminants
were not a priority in the research activities and development programmes of African
governments. This has changed with the establishment of international research institutes under
the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, particularly ILCA (International
Livestock Centre for Africa).
At least 10 countries depend on goats and sheep for
between 30 to 76% of total milk supply. Leading
among developed countries is Greece producing 178 kg
milk per person per year with 61% from sheep and
goats. Most developing countries need research,
extension service, and public support to improve
apparent productivity of goats and sheep. Domestic
supply from all milk sources is <100 kg/person per
year, and annual apparent yields average <100 kg of
milk/goat, <50 kg of milk/sheep, which makes supplies
of animal protein and calcium from domestic sources
very low. Statistical data on goat and sheep production
for United States are not available. The small
population of DHIA tested US dairy goats averaged in
recent years >700 kg of milk/goat per year, and some
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dairy sheep breeds may produce as much as 650 kg/yr.
The need for more milk availability appears to be
reflected in the dramatic increases of dairy goat
populations during the last 20 yr: 52% for the world,
56% for developing, 17% for developed countries,
while sheep populations decreased by 3% for the
world, by 6% in developed, but increased 14% in
developing countries. Research has been sparse on the
unique qualities of goat and sheep milk compared with
cow milk. Much development work by various agencies
has been devoted to reducing mortality and improving
feed supplies in harmony with the environment; this
work is mostly published in proceedings of scientific
meetings, often not in English. Results have shown in
many cases that dairy goats and dairy sheep can be
very profitable, even in developing countries with
difficult climate and topographical conditions (G. F.
W. Haenlein, Past, Present, and Future Perspectives of
Small Ruminant Dairy Research, Journal of Dairy
Science, 2000).
The broadening of the base of livestock research in National Agricultural Research Systems
has also boosted small research into cattle, pig and poultry production.
Why Research On Small Ruminants?
The new orientation of research can be attributed to a number of factors. These include:-
i) A new awareness of the potential of the small ruminant, the need for increased
meat production (will be discussed later)
ii) Pressure on land
iii) Urbanization
iv) Disease problems with traditional livestock species
v) Increasing feeding costs for non-ruminants
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vi) Used for research purposes and training
Processing of meat into more palatable and usable forms or providing meat at times of higher
purchaser demand will usually increase the price of the meat. Age, breed, and diet influence
tenderness, juiciness, and flavor, with higher fat in carcasses and cuts from goats fed
concentrate diets. The meat from kid and yearling goats of low conformation could be
distinguished by goat meat consumers from the meat of goats with medium and high
conformation. Ethnic groups that purchase goat meat have high levels of population growth
and are increasing their buying power. Higher income populations desire value-added food
products, which have been changed in form, function, or grouping to increase their economic
value and/or appeal; however, lower income groups have a supply of imported frozen goat
meat at a price lower than domestic sources. Food service operations purchase uniform cuts
and sizes of meat, which are provided through USDA Institutional Meat Purchase
Specification descriptions for goat meat. Goat meat also may be processed with unit
operations similar to those for other meat species. Tenderness of domestic goat meat was
improved with postmortem goat carcass aging, electrical stimulation of goat carcasses, and
blade tenderization of goat cuts. The addition of -tocopherol increased the oxidative stability
of goat meat patties, whereas the addition of oat trim or oat bran decreased fat and shear force.
Smoked and fermented goat meat sausages were acceptable to consumers, but they are more
expensive per unit weight than sausages from other species. Emulsification capacity of goat
meat proteins is high, and the palatability of frankfurters was increased with the use of
mechanically separated goat mince. Goat meat was distinguishable from other species in plain
and seasoned meat loaves, chili, curries, and patties. Specific organic acids are associated
with goat meat flavor, and oxidized flavors develop more rapidly in cooked goat meat than in
meat from other species. More convenient product forms and the availability of goat meat
would increase the value and penetration of goat meat in ethnic and nontraditional consumer
markets (K. W. McMillin3
and A. P. Brock, Production practices and processing for
value-added goat meat, J. Anim. Sci. 2005. 83:E57-E68)
The origin and history
Kalahari Red Goat Breed
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It is such a pleasure knowing the history of our breed! It is enriching to share the ups and downs of the history of our
attractive breed, the Kalahari Red with our fellow breeders, as narrated by the founders themselves.
compiled by: André Pienaar
About the first Kalahari Reds in the late Eighties
In the Seventies the farmers first started collecting these red goats, now known as Kalahari Reds, from the four corners of
South Africa and Namibia. Mr Ben Vorster, of Tshipese in the Limpopo Province, farmed north of the Soutpansberg. His lands
consisted mainly of Mopanie trees with many other indigenous trees and shrubs. He had a Boer goat stud of 200 ewes. One
ewe in his Boer goat stud gave birth to one red lamb and one Boer goat lamb every year. On their reaching maturity, he noticed
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the unique properties of the red lambs and he immediately started contacting other farmers and collecting all the red and red-
dappled lambs. This collection process took him as far afield as Namibia where he came across more red goats. He ended up
with thirty red goats that he started breeding with.
In 1994 an American who visited Tollie Jordaan, renowned Boer goat farmer of the farm Grootvlakte in the Somerset East
district, convinced him to farm with brown goats. After the American had left, Tollie bought 8 brown goats, but he was
unsatisfied with the goats’ heads and conformation. Yet he soon realised that there was nothing wrong with the fecundity,
mothering traits and adaptability of the brown goats. At that stage good rams were in short supply. His search also took him to
Namibia to get hold of genetic material. In later years Tollie excelled in his breeding and for the past six years he has been the
Breeder of Champions at the World Shows.
In 1991 Albie Horn of the farm Hartebeeshoek in De Aar spotted the remarkable properties of the brown goats and he built up
his flock from brown, as well as brown and white, indigenous goats from the former Bophuthatswana, the Eastern Cape, the
Karoo and Namibia. From the early years he took the lead with his excellent marketing techniques and set his sights on
promoting the brown goat and to have it registered as a breed. He greatly emphasised the mothering traits of the brown goat,
as well as it hardiness and adaptability to the Kalahari desert area where he farmed. At the same time he realised that the
brown goats could improve our indigenous goats and the indigenous goats of Australia and that the brown goat could provide
them with a uniform colouring. Albie was the first president of the Kalahari Red Breeders’ Association from 1999 to 2004.
During a visit to America, Louis van Rensburg, a recognised and experienced farmer of many small stock breeds, of the farm
Wonderpan in Prieska in the Northern Cape, saw many brown goats, or Solid Reds as the Americans called them. Like Tollie,
he too was convinced by the Americans to start farming with brown goats. On his return to South Africa he used a brown Boer
goat ram from his own Boer goat stud to service ten Boer goat ewes. Not one lamb was brown or even dappled. He decided to
put the lambs back with their sire. In that mating season all the lambs were brown or dappled. In a few years Louis had 120
brown lambs in his kraal. Louis contributed very much to performance testing in the Kalahari Reds and the registration of
Kalahari Red breeders with Studbook SA. He succeeded Albie Horn as president in 2004 and served in this office up to 2010.
Chris Strauss and Johnny Markram also collected brown lambs on their farms. Chris and Johnny who were both livestock
agents used the opportunity to purchase brown ewes from the farmers whose goats they marketed.
On 28 June 1996 Louw Pretorius of Landbouweekblad heard about Ben Vorster’s ewes and decided to write an article on them.
After this article had been published, farmers became aware of one another and began communicating.
In 1998 the goats were shown with the Savannas in Bloemfontein, under the name of Brown Savanna. The aspiration to have
an own breed was a great driving force. This required DNA tests being conducted to determine whether there was sufficient
genetic separation between the Boer goats, Savannahs and Kalahari Reds. Tail samples were taken from goats of Albie Horn,
Koenie Kotzé, Louis van Rensburg, Koert Loots, Ben Vorster and Christie van der Merwe and sent to the ARC for analysis.
The tests were conducted by Dr Marida Roets who also helped get international funding from the FOA for the tests.
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Breeders such as Louis van Rensburg and Ben Vorster were concerned about their breeding stemming from the Boer goats,
but the results of all the tests showed that the difference between the brown goats and the Boer goats was greater than
between the Boer goats and the Savannahs. On 5 July 1999 the Kalahari Red Club was founded in Kimberley.
The results of the DNA tests as published
Albie suggested at a Kalahari red club meeting that the name Kalahari Red be used. Kalahari was an internationally known
name and referred to South Africa. Red refers to the colour of the sand in the Kalahari where the goats were grazing.
He visited Australia where he met Wallace Kier. According to an article in Landline, Wallace turned his farming about and
implanted Kalahari Red embryos on his farm on 9 July 1999. He was well supported by the father of SA Boer goats in
Australia, Geoff Burnett Smith.
The Club was managed by its members until 19 October 2004, where, during an Annual General Meeting at Kuruman, it was
decided to engage with the SA Boer Goat Breeders’ Association. Louis van Rensburg, the president of the Kalahari Reds at
that stage, in collaboration with Tolle Jordaan and Albie Horn, were instrumental in the signing of the collaboration agreement.
On close examination, all the meat goats in the country stem from indigenous goats. However, selection and breeding resulted
in the various meat goat breeds in the country today.
In the collaboration agreement with the respective associations it was decided to emphasise the strong features of every breed
and not to concentrate on their differences.
Today, 13 years later in 2012, the Kalahari Reds have 79 registered stud breeders and many commercial breeders who form
the backbone of our industry. With the infrastructure established in the collaboration agreement, I believe that the Kalahari Red
breeders contribute annually ever more to the meat goat industry. With our participation in shows, sales and our involvement in
the activities of the seven clubs in the country, it has become possible to provide an extra pillar to this meat goat structure. The
Kalahari Reds have a study group in every club region of the SA Boer Goat Breeders’ Association with the exclusive purpose of
marketing and growing the breed, which would otherwise have been difficult to achieve. My wish is that the Kalahari Red
breeders will strive toward expanding the breed and its members, as the pioneers envisioned it, with the focus on fecundity,
mothering traits, adaptability and conformation.
I would like to conclude with the words of one of the pioneers,
“Keep it pure, keep it natural, keep it Kalahari
Red”
The case for promoting goat and sheep production
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Some of the major reasons for promoting goat and sheep production in tropical countries
include the following:-
1) Human populations are growing very rapidly creating a significant and increasing
demand for additional animal protein foods.
2) This demand can be met most easily by rapidly increasing the ruminant livestock
population. Thus roughage feeds and crop by-products unsuitable for human
consumption can be processed by the animals into desirable human foods.
3) It is easier to increase the population of small ruminants, such as goats and sheep than
large ruminants such as cattle and buffaloes. This is because the capital investment for
the farm is relatively low, average land holdings are usually small, the reproductive
turnover of goats and sheep is high and both species can be managed easily by family
labor.
4) In economic terms the opportunity costs are low for goat and sheep production at the
semi-subsistence level.
5) The genetic variability within and between tropical goats and sheep breeds is great
that selection for improved animal productivity is possible. If this is combined with
improved feeding and health, overall production could be considerable
6) Little attention has been paid to the feeding, management and health welfare of these
species in the past so that relatively low inputs to improve feeding and health could
produce relatively high gains in productivity
7) The opportunity exists for the introduction of improved management as research,
extension and educational facilities are improved in tropical countries
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Preferred environments
Goats
The wide distribution of goats in the Tropics and sub-tropics reflects their ability to adapt
to a variety of environments. However, the preferred environment is:-
i. On the lighter sandy soils in the drier Tropics, rather than in the wet humid
Tropics
ii. The inherent characteristics of goats such as resistance to dehydration, preference
for browse and wide-range feeding, habits,
iii. enable them to thrive in regions that receive less than 750mm rainfall
iv. In tropical Africa and the Americas, goats are found in the largest numbers in the
drier steppe and savanna regions.
v. In India, approximately 47% of all goats are found in the rather dry states of
Rajasthan, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Madya of Pradesh.
vi. The dwarf goat, unlike other species, thrives throughout the humid Tropics and
must be specially adapted to humid environments
Sheep
The wild ancestors of domestic sheep lived in the mountains and upland steppes of
Western Asia where:-
i. moderate climate and short grass rangeland, relatively free of bush and trees,
provided an ideal habit.
ii. Sheep are extremely versatile and since domestication they have spread
throughout the world.
iii. Breeds have been developed to suit a variety of environmental conditions
including the peculiar requirements of humans.
iv. This proliferation (abundance, increase) of sheep has provided breeds or types
adapted to almost every climate and socioeconomic circumstance.
v. Paradoxically, sheep as individuals and breeds are more sensitive to
environmental change than other domestic animals, but as a species they thrive
everywhere
vi. Although types of sheep have been developed that are capable of breeding in any
climatic environment, from snow-covered hills to semi-desert, sheep are
essentially grazers and prefer to graze short plants.
vii. As a result they thrive best on rangelands with low-growing plant population that
usually occur in the drier, but not the driest, areas of the Tropics
viii. As in the case with goats, sheep that adapt to the humid environments of the
Tropics appear to be smaller in size on average than those adapted to the drier
climatic regions.
Advantages of Small Ruminants (SRs)
The qualities of small ruminants compared with large animals such as cattle or buffaloes place
them in an important position particularly in tropical agriculture. Some people even refer to a
goat as "a poor man's cow"! While they provide valuable products like milk, meat, fat, fibre,
skins, manure etc. small ruminants require relatively small capital investments and low running
costs. Such investments are easily affordable by small-scale farmers, who are the majority in the
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tropical regions. There are also a number of other advantages of small ruminants over other
livestock that make them most appropriate resources to small-scale farmers in the tropics. In
brief, the attributes to the advantages of small ruminants are as follows:
(i) Body size
Being small in size, SRs require less space (housing, feeding, drinking etc.) and can fit into
places where land and other resources are limiting e.g. in highly cultivated places, in urban areas
etc. They can also be easily grazed in mountainous areas. Are ideal for slaughter for few people
particularly where storage facilities are limiting and small supplies of meat are required. The
meat can be consumed or sold in one day. All these qualities make the production of these
animals easy to initiate as well as to run even by a resource poor farmer.
(ii) Reproductive rate
SRs reproduce very fast. Most of the tropical goats and sheep regularly produce twins and
sometimes triplets. They can therefore be fast multiplied at relatively cheap costs. Considering
that they are cheap to buy, flocks can be built up until they contain many animals thereby
spreading the risk inherent in livestock ownership. Imagine that you have Tshs 500,000, only
sufficient to buy one cow Zebu breed). If the price of a goat is Tshs 50,000 it means that you can
buy ten goats. Instead of putting all your savings into one cow it seems more sensible to buy 10
goats to spread the risk. If random death takes away your cow you lose all your TShs 500,000
but if two or even four goats die, you will still be left with something to fall your back on! It is
rather unlikely to have all your 10 goats dying before reproducing any offspring.
For a poor resource farmer intending to embark on large ruminant (cattle) production, it is
advisable to utilise the SRs’ high reproductive rate by starting with the latter. Starting with a
small flock of goats or sheep it is possible to accumulate capital assets within a short period of
time. Then a part of the expanded flock can be sold and the cash used to replace the part with the
intended large ruminant.
With the flock fast expanding, the farmer is assured of regular cash income from SRs or of help
in case of emergence e.g. sickness, bereavement, school fees payment, dowry etc.
It should also be noted that, with fast reproduction rates and large numbers of individuals
reaching slaughter weight within reasonably short intervals of time, selection for improved
production could be easily done. As we can see in a later section, this is also one of the reasons
for SRs importance in livestock research.
(iii) Goats' milk
Goats' milk has a number of special attributes compared to cows' milk.
- It is highly nutritious with similar nutritional profile to human milk (4.5% fat, 4% lactose and
3-4% protein). The variation in protein content is due to nutrition, breed and stage of lactation. It
is an excellent source of minerals such as calcium and phosphorus for growing children and can
supply vitamin A, which is normally deficient in infant diets.
- It has small fat globules, chiefly of short- or medium-chain fatty acids. It is thus easily digested
by infants and those adults with digestive problems e.g. ulcers and those who are allergic to
cows' milk.
, taurine (Tau) is the most abundant free amino acid in goat’s milk, whose importance in the
growth of newborns and young children has been well established. Children born from
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HIV/AIDS infected mothers can be rescued from transmission of the disease through breast-
feeding by consuming goats’ milk thus compensate for the low taurine amino acid from
cow’s milk (Pasqualone et al., 2000). The nutritional importance of taurine for infant feeding
cannot be over emphasized and probably should be further studied as to whether it raises the
immunity against HIV/AIDS. Furthermore, folic acid in goats’ milk is higher than in cows’
milk (Personal discussion with Nkya, 2004).Thus the need to encourage consumption of
goats’ milk in the villages where even cow’s milk is unaffordable to most people. A report by
a spore magazine showed that dairy goats’ milk could cure malaria in malaria endemic
countries (Spore magazine, CTA 2002) and personal discussion with farmers in Zanzibar,
2004). Other discoveries learned through raising of dairy goats in Mgeta (Personal
communication with farmers) is that even reproductive problems, such as impotence in man
has been overcome through goats’ milk consumption and yet others claim to have given birth
to twins with no such genetic background in their clans. Further research work to prove these
exciting results by farmers would be quite beneficial to consumers of dairy goat milk and its
by-products.
(iv) Versatility
Goats and sheep can be raised under a wide range of conditions from feedlots to marginal arid
tropics where cattle would perform very poorly. This is probably due to their superior water and
nitrogen economy compared to cattle. Small ruminants are more resistant to diseases than say,
cattle and can easily survive on poor quality foods, crop residues and homestead food leftovers.
It is for example known that goats are more resistant against East Coast Fever (ECF) than cattle.
This characteristic makes goats and sheep important to people living in marginal agricultural
areas. They literally forage and survive on everything except stones plastic and metal! Due to
their feeding habits (goats are chiefly browsers while sheep are mainly grazers) small ruminants
are good for best utilisation of rangelands. Even better when mixed with cattle.
(v) Labour requirements
Small ruminants are highly flexible in terms of labour requirements. Due to their small size
goats and sheep can even be easily looked after by children, thereby leaving adult members of
the family to carry on with other activities. In some areas small ruminants are credited for
providing employment for the otherwise idle children. In case of small flock sizes, it is also
possible to practice what is known as tethering in which they can stay for long periods of time
without attention. Of course under properly fenced paddocks large flocks can go without
attention but this is not commonly practised in the tropics. Although only more common in
temperate countries, flocks of sheep can also be partly handled by trained dogs.
(vi) Fibres of economic importance
It is important to note here that it is only small ruminants, which produce valuable fibre (wool,
mohair and pashmina). In this respect small ruminants have importance both in temperate and
tropical regions of the world. Fibre and skins produced by small ruminants can sustain cottage
industries. You can read more about important fibres in chapter 5 (Section 5.4)
(vii) Acceptability
There are almost no cultural barriers against small ruminants. With only a few exceptions, small
ruminants provide a very acceptable source of food for people of all ethnic types and religious
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persuasions. Here we are comparing small ruminants with animals like pigs (Moslems, Jews,
SDAs etc.) and cattle (Hindus).
Small ruminants have a place in various types of agriculture because they integrate well with
crops and other forms of animal production provided proper husbandry practices are adhered to.
They also provide for efficient land utilisation by utilising land, which is unsuitable for crop
production such as the mountainous areas.
(viii) Various social roles
There are a number of social values attached to small ruminants in many societies of the tropics.
Goat meat is renown for being a delicacy in many situations e.g. restaurants, bars and other
social gatherings. It is an important component in ceremonies (c.f. ndafu). Fat from sheep may
be used as cooking oil and in some tribes (e.g. Maasai) it is used for some medicinal purposes.
In many traditions, small ruminants are used as payments for dowry, fines, sacrificial animals
(religious rituals), gifts and loans. They are also used for pack purposes especially in the
Himalayan region of the Indian sub-continent and for sports such as ram fighting in Indonesia
(See Devendra and McLeroy, 1982). In communities where these practices are common it
becomes almost compulsory for every family to own at least a few goats, sheep or both.
(ix) Manure
Like other livestock, small ruminants play a very important role in a crop-livestock integration
through provisions of nitrogen-rich manure for maintaining soil fertility and improving crop
production. Small-scale farmers who are unable to keep other types of livestock can still acquire
farmyard manure for their gardens by just keeping a few goats or sheep.
(x) Research
Again due to their low requirements of space, feed and labour, small ruminants are often suitable
for various scientific studies, the findings of which may also be extrapolated for use in large
ruminants.
(xi) Nutrition
As SRs survive and often even thrive on low-quality food, they are found in marginal arid areas,
are used for weed control (sheep) and bush control (goats) in plantations and live on rubbish in
peri-urban areas. In Tanzania, stray goats have been reported often around milling machines
where they consume the industrial by products of various cereals such as maize bran, wheat
bran, rice polish and most probably oil cakes such as cotton and sunflower seed cakes from
farmers who bring such products for grinding for livestock consumption. Stray goats become
quite healthy (Kawogo, Unpublished material 2003). The governments barn such stray animals
from moving around municipalities, so the system of stray livestock is not sustainable (Own
observation)
- Sheep can thrive on very short grass
- SRs can survive periods of poor nutrition: animals lose weight and cut down
production when food is inadequate, but when it becomes plentiful again appetite is
very high and there is compensatory growth
- SRs can survive infrequent watering. Breeds adapted to arid environments can
tolerate watering every three days, although reduced water intake causes reduced
food intake
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- Sheep tolerate contamination of drinking water by sodium chloride (common salt)
and other soluble salts (Gatenby, 2002)
- Sheep thrive on a wide range of thermal can tolerate extremely cold dry and hot dry
climates environments. Wool sheep. Hair sheep can tolerate wet as well as dry
climates.
- SRs need only limited land – much less than cows – so can be kept by small peasant
farmers and landless farmers. Although both poor and rich own the SRs, it is usually
the better off who have cattle (Gatenby, 2002; TARP II, 2006 own observation)
- SRs can graze and browse on steep slopes unsuitable for cattle and other large
animals
- They can be integrated with plantation crops of rubber, oil palm and coconut.
Unlike cattle and goats, sheep cannot reach the leaves of rubber and oil palm
(accepting the fact that goats are browsers, they can easily jump and reach higher
levels unlike their counterparts the sheep)
- SRs are economical of labour because they can flock together while browsing and
grazing. One or two shepherds can look after about 200 sheep in an open including a
similar or less number of goats depending on whether these animals are fenced in or
prevented from straying (where there is no fence)
- In general SRs can easily be handled by women and children, thus more socially
acceptable in all societies unlike rearing of other animals
- SRs can be sold in small increments to provide money for family or farm
expenditures
- SRs produce meat and milk in small quantities. This is an advantage where facilities
for preservation are minimal. The milk from a doe or ewe can be consumed by the
family and meat from goat or sheep can be sold in one day by a village butcher or
even consumed by a family in one or two days where there is no refrigeration
- A flock of six or more SRs is much less likely to be completely lost as a result of
theft or disease than one cow. If for example, one farmer has ten goats or sheep and
another one cow, the farmer with the SRs has a good chance of retaining four of his
flock even if the area is affected by an epidemic that kills an average of 60% of all
animals. However, it is likely that the cow will die, leaving the second farmer with
no animals at all.
- SRs have high reproductive rate. In favourable conditions a doe/ewe can give birth
every eight months and generation interval (i.e. the time between a doe/ewe giving
birth to a kid/lamb respectively and that kid/lamb becoming a mother) is less than
two years. For cattle the calving interval is one to two years and the generation
interval about four years. A high reproductive rate is important when numbers of
animals are reduced by events such as drought. After the drought, when the
environment becomes favourable again, goat herds and sheep flocks build up quickly
(compensatory growth also plays its role to some individual/ all animals). Large
ruminants on the other hand, remain low in number for several years.
- Keeping SRs and eating/drinking their products, i.e. meat and milk are activities
virtually free from cultural barriers. This is untrue of pork, which is forbidden to
Muslims and Jews; and cattle which Hindus do not slaughter.
- Devendra and McLeroy (1984) report that goats produce relatively higher milk yield
per unit of Liveweight compared to cows and buffaloes; yet goats are more persistent
milkers than the other ruminants.
13

• Good nutrition for sheep and goats means provision of quality
adequate feed to these animals
• By quality we mean essential nutrient contents such as energy,
protein, minerals vitamins and water
• The quantity of food for individual animals will depend on the
animal's size (weight), its production as well as its physiological
status
• With good nutrition, the animals grow faster, produce high (e.g. milk of high quality
and quantity), fights against diseases and feel comfortable
• As SRs, they can derive their nutrients from various materials including: grass,
legumes, different tree and shrub leaves, and crop residues such as stover, straws and
crop by-products such as cereal brans and seed cakes
• Animals may be kept under 7 different categories or classes:
 (a) Young growing animals
 (b) Gestating (pregnant) females
 (c) Lactating females
 (d) Dry females
 (e) Breeding males
 (f) Males raised for slaughter
 (g) Working animal (unless a buck/ram is pulling a cart)
 Both sheep and goats have food intake capacity of 3-6% of body weight.
14

STUDY QUESTION
• Feed intake capacity of shoats is similar.
A lactating shoat is weighing 30kg and producing 2 litres of milk per day. Calculate how
much TOTAL FEED it will require. Give also portion of protein and the rest of the feeds
(Show your work; 20 marks)
CONCENTRATE CONTENTS COMPOSED
IN DAIRY GOAT FEED (30% of total feed)
MAIZE BRAN 65% (55-65%)
SUNFLOWER/COTTON SEED CAKE 25% (25-30)
MELIA/LEUCAENA/MORINGA 7%
SALT 0.5%
MINERALS 2.5%
TOTAL 100%
CALCULATION:-
• Roughage should be fed as basal ration and it is the gut fill of the ruminant that
determines what and how much of the roughage to eat.
• 3-6% Bwt, one could choose 5 % Bwt, so 5/100 * 30 = 1.5
• Total feed consumed by the goat or sheep is 1.5kg
• Take 30% to be concentrate,
• thus 30/100 * 1.5 = 0.45kg concentrate
• Thus part of protein content is 0.45*30/100= 0.135kg
• The rest of the feeds contained herein are 1.05kg (ROUGHAGE INCLUDED)
15

SECOND EXAMPLE:-
Q2. A growing (weaner, ¥) dairy goat 10 kg Liveweight is supposedly eating 4.0% its body
weight at Magadu. Protein consumed by the animal is 30% of the total given feed. According to
the practical way of feeding goats at Magadu experimentally (MSc), how many days/ weeks/
months/years would it need for this animal to reach maturity if it is now 4 months old? Also give
its correct weight at maturity. With your calculation, discuss critically how you reached to the
correct answers (20 marks).
(¥:- female), Daily body gain is between 50 – 100 ADG. According to the lecture in class by
Prof E. Ndemanisho, it is recommended that a scientist looks at both the age and weight of
a goat before mating it. Thus a female goat at Magadu at the age of 11 to 12 months could
be mated if weighing 18 – 20 kg. The animal is eating 0.4kg (400gm)per day (4% its body
weight) In the next 11 months the goat will gain 7 x 30 x 50 = 10500 gm. The female goat
will therefore weigh (10kg + 10.500) = 20.5 kg This is the ideal weight, but due to stress
factors on the way the animal will presumably weigh between 18 – 20 kg as a practically
recommended weight and age for breeding.
Feeding of goats
• Nutrient requirements of goats:
 Goats are energetic, inquisitive and versatile in the art of food gathering.
• Feeding a new born
 Colostrum (first milk) is the most important ingredient for a newborn kid's diet.
 Suggested feeding strategy for the kid (dairy goats)
• Feeding a pregnant dry doe
 At 3 months of pregnancy, stop milking the doe as the kid (s) inside will be
growing fast, requiring most of the nutrients. (A HEALTHY FETUS TODAY IS
A BETTER PERFORMER TOMORROW)
 Allow free access to good pasture and roughage plus some concentrates (12 -
14% CP) at a level of 0.2 - 0.7 kg per day. Don't overfeed since a fat doe will
have trouble at kidding.
Feeding a pregnant dry doe:-
 Remember that goats are browsers, not continuously grazers although they can
eat grass. A place with low bushes is ideal for the goats.
 Make sure that the doe gets necessary minerals (Ca, P) during these critical
times.
Feeding a lactating doe:-
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• Feed requirements of the lactating doe are much greater than that of a pregnant
doe
 Rations for lactating does should contain 14 - 16% CP
 It is recommended that, for each 1 - 1½ kg of milk produced, ½ kg of concentrate
be fed to the doe per day
 Normally supplement the does with concentrate at milking time as this has
influence on milk-let down (oxytocin).
• Remember that milk secretion requires balanced nutrients
 Ensure that the concentrate for supplementing lactating does will provide
adequate energy, protein, minerals, vitamins and ad-lib clean water
 It is therefore imperative to provide better quality feed during lactation as this
influences milk production
Feeding a breeding buck:
• Supplementation is not necessary during non-breeding season, but give plenty of
green forage and pasture to a breeding buck
 As the breeding season approaches, concentrates should be added to the buck's
diet
 ½ kg of concentrate per day. A buck needs only 12% protein in diet
 Plenty of water and exercise are important for a breeding buck. Where
impossible to get supplement, provide good pasture
 Never let a buck get fat or sluggish or this may cause him to be sterile
Feeding of sheep:
• Feeding the lambs
 The best way of raising the lambs is to let them suckle from their mothers
throughout their pre-weaning period
 To avoid supplement expenses under intensive production, good pasture or
preserved fodder (e.g. hay or silage) should be reserved for lactating ewes so that
they can supply sufficient milk for the lambs
 Under intensive conditions, where some ewes are milked or lambs are raised for
early slaughter, creep feeding of the lambs is advantageous
Feeding a pregnant ewe:
• The first month (EARLY PREGNANCY)
• The 2nd and 3rd months (MID-PREGNANCY)
• The 4th and 5th months (LATE PREGNANCY)
 About 70% of foetal growth takes place during the final 6 weeks of pregnancy
Drought management of SRs :
• i) Weaning of kids/lambs from their mothers
• ii) Reduction in herd numbers
• iii) Herd segregation to enable different treatment of various categories
• iv) Utilization of available paddock feed
• v) Attention to water supplies
• vi) Parasite control and stock health
• vii) Predator control
• viii) Deciding on a breeding policy
• ix) Supplementary feeding
17

STRATEGIES FOR OVERCOMING FEEDS & HEALTH CRISES
• Deliberate effort to conserve/preserve feeds, water and medications
• To mate SHOATS/cattle during months of plenty of feeds such as February to
May and December to April so that the KIDS/LAMBS/ calves are consequently
dropped or born during the months of plenty of pasture and concentrates
• To reduce the number of animals just before dry season, so that livestock
keepers benefit from the notion of “livestock banking”; whereby they bank their
money in any of the commercial banks they chose to join and during rainy
season they could purchase a few more replacement stocks. If they practice this
phenomenon they will avoid losing SHOATS in hundreds during droughts and
be able to salvage a few good quality MEAT SHOATS
• To improve livestock feeds/ forages/pasture by using SHOATS manure to apply
upon the fields even the crops which will in turn give better quality feeds as crop
residues. Other proteinous crop residues, such as bean, chick peas etc and
leguminous multipurpose trees should be preserved ready to feed during the dry
season.
How to feed sheep and goats
The digestive system
In order to understand how sheep and goats use grass we shall study their digestive system.
Digestive system of a sheep
The mouth
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Open the mouth of a sheep or goat. You see two jaws and a tongue.
Toward the back of the mouth you can see large teeth with which the animal chews grass.
These are called molars.
The upper jaw has no front teeth. The lower jaw has 8 front teeth. The older the animal is, the
more these teeth are worn.
You can tell the age of a sheep or goat by looking at its front teeth.
The first stomach
Let us watch a sheep or a goat feeding.
To feed, a sheep or a goat grips the grass between the upper jaw and the teeth of the lower
jaw. It jerks its head to pull off the grass. It does not chew the grass, but swallows it at once.
The grass goes into the first stomach (or rumen)
Sheep’s stomach
Sheep and goats ruminate.
When sheep and goats have filled the first stomach, they often lie down.
But they go on moving their jaws. They are ruminating.
The sheep and the goat bring up a little grass from the first stomach into the mouth.
They chew the grass for a long time with their molars.
When the grass is well chewed, they swallow it again; but this time the grass does not go into
the first stomach, but into the other parts of the stomach.
19

A ruminating sheep: the grass comes back to the mouth
A ruminating sheep: the grass goes back to the stomach to be digested
Sheep and goats can ruminate well when they are quiet and lying down.
Animals that ruminate are called ruminants.
Goats, sheep, cows, deer and camels are ruminants.
Feeding sheep and goats
They must be given enough food.
If an animal does not get enough food, it does not put on weight.
In the dry season there is often not enough food and animals lose weight.
They must be given rich food.
Ruminants eat grass.
In grass they get what is needed to build their bodies.
But they can be given as well certain very rich foods which are called feed supplements.
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A sheep or a goat raised for meat should grow quickly. Then it can be sold faster and you
earn money faster.
A ewe or a she- goat that is having young ones needs good food (see pregnancy requirements
in Booklet No. 8, page 21).
Then she can feed well the young in her womb which will later drink her milk.
If the mothers have plenty of milk, the young ones grow better and faster.
In order to give animals enough food all the year round, the flock is moved from place to
place. When there is no more water and grass in one region, the flock is taken to another
region where there is still water and grass.
In the dry season sheep and goats can feed more easily than cattle. They make better use of
the grass, because the sheep cut the grass closer to the ground, and the goats pull up the grass.
You can feed sheep on pasture where cattle have already fed, because sheep eat short grass.
But they leave nothing behind them.
You must not let these animals feed in very wet places, because they catch diseases of the
feet and body.
A good shepherd knows how to move the animals; he has a good dog to help him.
Then the flock is well fed, it does not catch diseases; the little ones grow up and do not often
die.
During the rainy season it is easy to feed animals well. Grass grows quickly, there is a lot of
it, it is young and nourishing.
During the dry season, animals are badly fed. The grass is hard and scarce, the stems are tall,
the leaves are dry. The animals won't eat this grass. They are short of food, they get thin and
sometimes die.
During the dry season it is necessary to give the animals a feed supplement.
Balanced rations for animals
Rations for lambs of 5 months and over, and for breeding males.
In the rainy season an animal eats about 2.5 kilogrammes of grass a day.
In the dry season, give:
First ration: 1 kg of hay and 500 grammes of silage.
21

Second ration: 1 kg of hay and 100 grammes of cooked cassava.
Third ration: 1 kg of silage and 200 grammes of rice bran.
Fourth ration: 1 kg of hay and 100 grammes of rice bran.
Fifth ration: 1.5 kg of silage and 150 grammes of cooked cassava.
If you want to fatten an animal for sale or for eating, add 350 grammes of oil cake cottonseed,
copra or oil palm kernel.
Oil cake is costly, but it makes animals put on weight and fatten quickly.
Do not give the same rations to females and their young ones: their needs are different.
Instead, give the following rations.
In the rainy season:
Pregnant ewe or she- goat weighing 30 kg:
2 kg of grass
100 g of rice bran
300 g of oil cake
Ewe or she- goat suckling young of 0 to 4 weeks:
2 kg of grass
400 g of cooked cassava
400 g of rice bran
600 g of oil cake
Ewe or she- goat suckling young of 5 to 10 weeks:
2 kg of grass
400 g of rice bran
600 g of oil cake
Ewe or she- goat suckling two young ones of 0 to 4 weeks:
2 kg of grass
500 g of rice bran
600 g of oil cake
Ewe or she-goat suckling two young ones of 5 to 10 weeks:
22

2 kg of grass
500 g of rice bran
600 g of oil cake
Supplementary note
Food Requirements of Sheep and Goats
Animal Feed units Digestible protein (Grammes)
Maintenance requirement
Sheep, goats
adults of 20 kg 0.3 10 g
adults of 30 kg 0.3 15 g
Maintenance and production requirements
Pregnant ewe end she- goats
of 20 kg 0 6 80 g
of 30 kg 0.6 90 g
Ewe of 30 kg suckling
1 lamb of 4 weeks 1.6 160 g
1 lamb of 10 weeks 1.4 160 g
2 lamb of 4 weeks 2 3 160 g
2 lambs of 10 weeks 2.1 160 g
She-goat having 1 litre of milk 0 7 75 g
She-goat having 2 litre of milk 0.9 140 g
Maintenance, growth and fattening requirements
Lamb of 2 months 0.6 60 g
23

Lamb of 3 months 0.9 80 g
After weaning, beginning of fattening 1.0 40 g
After weaning, cad of fattening 1 2 50 g
Giving a feed supplement and mineral salts
When food is short, when the grass is hard, animals must be given a feed supplement.
When animals are reproducing, when the females are pregnant, when they are giving milk,
they must be given a feed supplement.
You can, for instance, buy meal for sheep and goats. It is sold commercially, but it is dear.
You must also give mineral salts, such as a licking stone. One kilogramme contains: 400 g of
salt 150 g of calcium, 80 g of phosphorus as well as other mineral salts. Or you can give
native soda. Put the salt in the water, in hay and silage.
Mineral salts are needed to form the animals' bones.
Pregnancy Toxemia (Ketosis) in Ewes and Does
By S. LeValley1
(8/2010)
Quick Facts...
• Pregnancy toxemia in sheep and goats is also known as pregnancy disease, lambing
sickness and twin-lamb/kid disease.
• The principal cause of pregnancy toxemia is low blood sugar (glucose).
• Onset of the disease is often triggered by one of several types of stress including
nutritional or inclement weather.
• The disease is most prevalent in ewes and does carrying two or more lambs or kids.
The disease also affects ewes and does that are extremely fat or excessively thin.
• The best preventive measure is increased feeding of high energy concentrates and
grains during the last month of pregnancy.
24

Occurrence and Causes
Pregnancy toxemia in sheep and goats has also been called ketosis, lambing/kidding sickness,
pregnancy disease and twin-lamb/kid disease. It occurs in all parts of the world and is an
often fatal disease occurring only during the last month of pregnancy. Death occurs in two to
10 days in about 80 percent of the cases. It most often affects ewes/does pregnant with twins
or triplets and is characterized by low blood sugar (glucose). Economic losses because of the
disease have been considerable and it is the most commonly occurring metabolic disease of
sheep and goats.
It is generally accepted that the basic cause of pregnancy toxemia is a disturbance of
carbohydrate or sugar metabolism. In earlier phases of the disease, blood glucose
concentrations are less than 30 and may be as low as 10 mg/100 ml (normal 40-60). Blood
ketone bodies, on the other hand, are usually greater than 15 and occasionally may be as high
as 80 mg/100 ml (normal 1-4). The free fatty acid content of the blood plasma also is
increased, meaning that body fat is being broken down and used for energy.
Since glucose is essential for proper functioning of the brain, a deficiency of glucose will
result in nervous dysfunction and eventually coma and death. Glucose is also required for the
muscles during exercise, but one of its greatest uses is by the fetuses. The growing fetuses
continually remove large quantities of glucose and amino acids for their growth and energy
requirements. Furthermore, the problem of supplying glucose seems great in that sheep/goats
and other ruminants do not absorb much glucose from the diet and, instead, glucose has to be
manufactured in the liver from other compounds.
Contributing Factors
The factors affecting the onset and progress of this disturbed metabolism are varied but for
convenience they may be grouped into two general categories: 1) nutrition and management;
2) metabolism.
On a nutritional and management basis, pregnancy toxemia can be classified and sometimes
even experimentally induced by 1) a chronic under-nourishment or underfeeding during
pregnancy; 2) a short but nearly complete fast in well nourished sheep in association with
environmental or psychological stress. These two forms of the disease also have been referred
to as a 1) under nutrition (chronic) syndrome; 2) stress (acute) syndrome, respectively. The
second form occurs in association with climatic stresses, such as heavy snow or rain, with
25

psychological stresses, such as transport on foot or by truck, or with other stresses, such as an
outbreak of a minor disease.
In practice, an inadequate plane of nutrition is probably the most common factor in rendering
ewes susceptible, but stress or a short period of going without feed frequently is the trigger
for initiation of the disease.
Nutrition as Prevention
One major factor in the nutrition of the pregnant ewe/doe is that of the unborn lamb/kid. The
gestation period in sheep/goats is short as compared to many other animals and the fetal
demand for nutrients and glucose is at its greatest during the last two months of pregnancy. In
fact, about 80 percent of the growth of the fetus occurs during the last six weeks of
pregnancy; if twins are present, the increase in total weight is considerable.
Although much is yet to be learned about pregnancy toxemia, the incident of the disease can
be minimized by careful management and proper nutrition. The total metabolic rate increases
by at least 50 percent during late pregnancy. It has been shown that late-pregnant ewes/goats
require about 50 percent more feed if bearing a single lamb and about 75 percent if carrying
twins. The increased amount of feed, however, sometimes exceeds the sheep’s digestive
capacity unless grain is substituted for part of the hay. Multiple fetuses will tend to crowd the
animals digestive system therefore limiting intake, this is where concentrates can help.
One pound of corn or the equivalent of high energy concentrate should be fed daily during
the last six weeks of pregnancy.
Affected ewes stand apart from others in the flock, walk unsteadily, appear dull, and are
usually off feed. Vision may be impaired, and they show little fear of humans or dogs.
Blindness often results, and eventually there can be convulsions, grinding of the teeth,
labored respiration and usually a mucous discharge from the nose. The mortality rate is about
80 percent, with death usually occurring in from two to 10 days. A shock-like state eventually
occurs.
Pregnant ewes/goats should be in medium condition and not fat; body condition 3.5. During
the first half of pregnancy, excessive fat should be reduced and weight gains should be
allowed only during the six weeks before lambing/kidding. Overly fat ewes/does seem more
susceptible to the stress syndrome of pregnancy toxemia than are other ewes/does. Late-
pregnant ewes/does should be treated with considerable care at all times to minimize both
physical and psychological stresses. Feed should never be withheld and transportation
avoided if possible.
Treatment of pregnancy toxemia in ewes/does other than feeding concentrates might include;
oral propylene glycol or corn syrup are quick sources of energy and should be given at the
rate of 200 ml four-times daily along with 3 to 4 liters of an electrolyte solution designed for
dehydration in livestock.
26

Sheep and goats need water
Sheep and goats get thin during the dry season because they are not well fed, but also because
they do not drink enough. A sheep can drink 5 to 6 litres of water a day.
If ruminants do not drink enough, they cannot digest grass.
Animals can drink:
• in their shelter: from a hollowed- out tree trunk, from a barrel cut in half, from a concrete
trough. Their drinking places must be always very clean.
• at streams or rivers: Make sure that the water is clean and clear;. there must be no mud in it.
Sheep and goats easily catch diseases from water.
It is important:
• to give the flock every day enough water;
• to give water that is as clean as possible;
• to give this water in a clean place;
• not to let the sheep and goats go into the water. They can catch diseases from it.
Suggested question paper
FILL IN THE MISSING WORDS
The.......................................way of breeding does not take much but does
not.......................................
The female of the ram is called the......................... and their Young ones are
called...........................
The female goat is called the............................. The young ones of goats are
called.........................
In Africa there is only one breed of wool sheep, the....................................................
When sheep and goats swallow grass it goes into................ They bring back the grass to chew
it. They are.................
They must be given food end all the year especially in the................. season.
Sheep and goats are kept by a and a or in a...........................................
The animals are vaccinated before.........................
For fertilization the ewe is.........................by the ram......................... and the she goat by the
buck.
Young ones born at the same time are called a.................
The female suckles her young for about.........................months.
From the.........................week the lamb or kid can take other food.
Ewes can be fertilized from the age of.........................months.
The ram should be at least.........................months before serving.
27

Give a.........................to each animal - it is the animal's name.
Making a good choice of breeding animals is called...............
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS
Explain how ruminants use grass.
How can you tell if a sheep and a goat are fat?
Where are parasites found in an animal?
How can you see that a ewe is going to have Young?
Explain what took place when an ewe gave birth.
Disadvantages of Small Ruminants
In my opinion, there exist no disadvantages related to small ruminants. What is normally
considered as a disadvantage, if critically analysed you find that the blame is not for them but
their masters (man). I share these feelings with most lovers of small ruminants (See Devendra
and Burns, 1983; Peacock, 1996). However, if squeezed to list disadvantages of small ruminants
the following points can serve the purpose:
(i) Vulnerability to theft and predation
Due to their small size, small ruminants can easily be stolen than would be say, cattle. This
depends on the level of crime in the area. I have seen cattle tied with big chains while in their
shelter, the reason being fear for thieves! It is probably true that carnivorous wild animals find it
easier to prey on small animals than large ones. In this case small ruminants are likely to
succumb to predators more than cattle or pigs.
(ii) Environment destruction
Especially goats, small ruminants have for a long time been wrongly accused of destroying the
environment. They are often blamed for the destruction of vegetation, crops and causing land
erosion. You can see here the reason why I earlier mentioned that the blames supposed to be on
humans are pushed on to these animals. Destruction on crops can be avoided by a proper control
on grazing livestock. Destruction of natural vegetation and soil erosion can be controlled by
regulation of stocking rates, which includes all kinds of livestock. Defending the goats, Christie
Peacock wrote: "Goats are often blamed for the destruction of vegetation, when the real culprits
are people and the overuse they make of vegetation in fragile environments, through tree-felling
and over-grazing by all species of livestock. The goat is often found in degraded environments,
because it is the only species able to survive in such conditions. Found at the scene of the crime,
it is blamed for it, with little thought given to the preceding 20-30 years. The simplistic thinking
which blames the goat does little to solve the underlying problems of the environmental
mismanagement" (Peacock, 1996)
(iii) Relatively low production
Based on their small size one may regard small ruminants as low producers (meat, milk etc) per
individual animal compared to large animals. Resources not limiting and the objective being
production for commercial purposes large animals are likely to be more economical than small
ones. However, under good husbandry, small ruminants may compensate for size through their
28

high reproductive performances. However goats produce relatively higher milk yield per unit of
Liveweight compared to cows and buffaloes. For example, in France the average milk yields per
day per kilogram liveweight for cows and goats were 22.0 and 35.6 kg respectively (Devendra
and McLeroy, 1984). The relatively higher milk yield in the goat is due to the relatively larger
mammary gland and volume of secretory tissue comprising a greater proportion of total body
weight.
(iv) Less tolerance to heat
Particularly considering exotic breeds, small ruminants have been found to be less tolerant to
heat stress compared to cattle. One has to take necessary measures of reducing the stress
particularly where pure-bred exotics are introduced into a hot climate. You can read about
reducing heat stress in Chapter 3.
(v) Inability to provide farm power
Again due to their size, unlike cattle, small ruminants seldom serve as pack transporters and
provide draught power.
Limitations to Small Ruminant production
For many years general ignorance and prejudice against them have mainly slowed down SR
production. Politicians, policy makers, development administrators and researchers have always
paid little attention to these animals. However, over the past decade, the trend has been changing
favourably. There have been remarkable moves towards recognising the importance of these
animals. Various developmental as well as research projects involving SR are seen in many
parts of the tropics and subtropics. Regular international conferences on goats are clear evidence
showing that SRs are receiving the necessary attention globally. A goat network has been
established in Tanzania (Tanzania Goat Network - TAGONET) involving all persons dealing
with goat production and research in Tanzania. Under this network, zonal networks are
emerging, e.g. SEGODEN (South Eastern Goat Development Network). There is yet another
network, Eastern African Goat Development Network (EAGODEN) that unites the countries’
networks in the East African region. All these networks have been established to enable different
stake holders come together and share their experiences on goat production and development
with purposes of helping each other in solving common problems of the sector.
Problems limiting SR production may be discussed under four main headings namely; (a) those
related to climate, (b) those related to economic environment, (c) those related to the level of
technology and (d) those due to prevailing national policy.
Limitations to Small Ruminant production: Constraints
• Technical constraints
 Nutrition –water, feed
 Animal diseases and health
 Livestock genotype-production and adaptation traits
 Improper animal management
 Predators
29

• Socio-economic constraints
 Traditional objectives of the producer
 Land tenure and land use
 Management skills
 Consumer taste/preference
• Support service constraints
 Poor veterinary services
 Ineffective extension services
 Poor input delivery system
 Lack of effective credit facilities
 Poor market & transport services
 Low disposable income
• Ecological
 Overlaps with slide no 2 on land use
 Climate
It would be quite feasible with well-designed strategies to resolve all these constraints, which
will in turn have major impact on SR production. For – instance, the possibilities of using
dietary intervention to improve or increase goat milk yield have received extensive studies over
the years. Nevertheless, feed supply is the most persuasive constraint to livestock production. It
is directly dependent upon the production of plant biomass, natural pastures, improved
pastures/legumes and browses with emphasis on chemical composition, intake and digestibility.
Climate
Climatically changes influence livestock production (not only of small ruminants) by affecting
feed availability, disease prevalence and other environmental conditions. The wet season is
normally accompanied by plenty of forages, but may be a good season for some diseases and
parasites. De-worming is normally necessary at more frequent intervals to minimise infestations.
Prolonged dry seasons result in shortages of feed supply thereby exposing animals to weak
conditions and eventual mortalities. To minimise losses during drought outbreaks certain
measures need to be taken in small ruminant flocks. Some measures, such as feed preservation
could practised and this involves making hay/ and or silage. The detailed account on drought
management is given in Chapter 4. It should be noted that once animals are deprived of adequate
nutrition, their vulnerability to diseases and parasites increases. Therefore, feed shortages
coupled with other stresses of weather e.g. heat (or cold) controlled by climatic change limits the
productivity of small ruminants.
Economic environment
In order to achieve high production levels, efficient disease and parasite control, feed
supplementation, proper breeding and other management operations need to be put into practice.
Unfortunately, some of these practices require some input obtainable from outside the farmer's
holdings. A lack of sufficient money for purchasing such inputs inevitably forces the farmer to
30

produce at very low levels. In most cases the animals grow at slow rates, attain small slaughter
weights at their slaughter age and the dairy ones produce low quantities of milk simply because
the farmers are unable to provide all the necessary inputs. Constantly poor farmers lose the few
animals they have due to failure to control diseases or inability to supplement them during feed
shortages.
Traditional objectives of the producer. The primary objective of the producers in the tropics is
to meet daily needs and social prestige. As a result of this, the producer finds himself with a
need to keep as many animals as possible with little regard for quality or productivity. This leads
to having animals of poor status and poor products, failing to fetch good markets.
- Poor marketing system. There are no systematic market arrangements for either small
ruminants or their products. Due to lack of organised markets (primary as well as secondary),
farmers somewhere may go without markets for their products while there is unsatisfied demand
for those products elsewhere. Farmers have to be advised to form their co-operatives and
associations for better marketing of their animals and animal products. Auctions for cattle
markets are not quite suitable for small ruminants. Prices obtained for small ruminants outside
organised markets are usually low and not competitive.
Level of technology
Little or low level of research has been done in small ruminants as compared to cattle in relation
to breeding, nutrition, disease and general management. As a result of this our goats and sheep
maintain low production efficiencies due to low genetic potential for meat and milk production
among the indigenous breeds, poor and inadequate nutrition particularly during the dry seasons
as well as poor disease and parasite control and management. There is need for more serious
research in these aspects in order to establish principles specific to sheep and goat management
for efficient and sustainable production from these species. Under technical constraints of small
ruminant production, the following points can be discussed:
(i) Poor and inadequate nutrition. Like other livestock, small ruminants often face
seasonal shortages of food, both in quality and quantity mainly due to lack of proper
strategies of feeding. These strategies include conservation of feed, earlier and higher
off-take of growing stock, supplementary feeding to lactating or heavily pregnant
females and use of crop residues supported by use of multipurpose tree leaves.
(ii) Animal diseases and health management in general. Taking Tanzania as an
example, diseases and parasites form an important constraint to SR production.
Helminthiasis, pneumonia and foot rot are main diseases of small ruminants in Tanzania
causing large losses every year. Studies on improved control measures against a number
of endemic and parasitic diseases of SRs are required in the tropics.
(iii) Unavailability of improved animals. Although indigenous SRs may be adapted to
the local environment, it is generally accepted that their production potential is low. It is
also acknowledged that their production could be improved by crossing selected animals
with exotic or improved breeds. Unfortunately, selection is seldom done and there is no
reliable means of obtaining improved animals for crossbreeding.
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(iv) Lack of management skills on the part of farmers. Some technologies may
already be established but are not being practised by farmers. This calls for mass
education through seminars whenever possible, mass media as well as personal
communications to educate farmers on best management practices for efficient
production.
Prevailing policies
- Little emphasis in government policies on sheep and goat development. These animals are
normally included as small items, swallowed by other species whenever livestock policies are
formulated. They are thus never given a first priority, be it in planning or be it in financing. It is
very unfortunate that extension also falls in ignoring small ruminants, putting more emphasis on
cattle.
- Land tenure and land use systems. The system prevailing in Tanzania and many other
tropical countries offers very little opportunity for expansion of livestock production. There is no
clear demarcation between cropland and grazing land and many farmers have little say over any
piece of land available for raising livestock. Communally grazed land often suffers problems of
overgrazing, leading to land degradation. Governments need to demarcate (after necessary
surveys) land for different uses and provide land rights to respective users.
- Lack or weak co-ordination of small ruminant research and developmental activities.
There is a poor linkage between research, extension and farming communities. This is what
delays adoption of the already established technologies about small ruminants. Such a linkage
should be streamlined and strengthened to ensure that the available technologies are imparted to
farmers. Farmers should also be involved at some stage in research for their development.
Research should always be geared towards solving farmer-based problems.
32

FUNCTIONAL ROLES OF GOATS AND SHEEP
The economic importance of goats and sheep depends on the value of their produce or
services which include meat, milk, fibres, skins and manure amongst others.
.
MEAT
Tropical peoples consume virtually all offals, including goat and sheep skins in some
countries (mainly skins from young animals – common in the humid Tropics). Sheep
probably have somewhat higher average carcass weight than do goats and these accounts for
the higher production of mutton and lamb.
Preferences for specific type of meat are important. In the Indian sub-continent, some islands
in the Caribbean and some West African countries, goat meat (chevon, French terminology)
is preferred, whereas in most North African countries and Western Asia the preference is for
mutton. In East African countries goat meat is relished. Goat meat is usually leaner than
mutton and the distribution of fat on the carcass differs. In sheep, fat is distributed throughout
the carcass though there may be concentrations as, for example, in the rump or the tail of
some breeds. In goats fat is concentrated around the viscera.
MILK
Goats are the most important milk producers. Goat milk is produced everywhere, but sheep
milk only in certain regions. In Western Asia it is traditional to milk sheep and sell the milk
fresh or, in the mid – latitude regions, to use it for the production of yoghurt, butter and
cheese
African tropical sheep are estimated to account for approximately 40 per cent of all milk
produced in the continent. It is probable however, that the real importance of sheep milk in
tropical Africa is considerably greater than available data suggests, as most sheep milk is
consumed in pastoralist camps and remote villages and it goes un-recorded. Little sheep milk
in the Tropics reaches market channels.
Butter – fat, ghee, cheese and all other milk byproducts may be produced in insignificant
amounts. Considerable quantities of sour milk however, are consumed.
Goat’s milk is nutritionally similar to cow’s milk but the high proportion of small fat globules
facilitates easy digestion. Goat’s milk may also possess some anti-allergenic properties. The
composition of sheep milk differs in that it possesses a higher content of fat, crude protein
and non-fat solids.
SKINS
Goats skins are a valuable by-product from rearing goats, and in countries with high goat
populations such as Pakistan and India, these earn valuable foreign exchange (Devendra and
McLeroy, 1984). Skins can be most important product of certain breeds of goats, such as the
Red Sokoto from Nigeria and Niger, the Mubende from Uganda and the Black Bengal from
India; these goat skins are well known for their superior quality and command a premium in
world markets.
33

Tropical sheep skins coming from haired or only lightly wooled animals are much thicker
than those from the temperate – type fine – wooled breeds. In particular, the skins of the
larger breeds of sheep raised by pastoralists in low-rainfall areas are sought after for use as
glove, leather, in the manufacture of handbags and for other specialized purposes.
Apart from monetary value in world commerce both goat and sheep skins have many local
uses as containers for water, milk and other liquids and for making bedding and locally
produced handcrafts.
Hair and Wool
The hair of most goats is used locally for the making of coarse bags and rope, but mohair and
cashmere (pashmina) are special fibres commanding a premium price on world markets.
Mohair is the fleece of the Angora breed of goat. Turkey and Texas in the USA produce
about 85 percent of the total world production of commercial mohair; very little is produced
within the Tropics.
Pashmina is the very fine undercoat of the Cashmere goat; it is produced outside the Tropics
in the arid, high – altitude areas of the Indian sub-continent. It is used to produce high –
quality clothing and when blended with wool produces felt. The Cashmere goat has managed
to penetrate into Tanzanian land since 2007 with the help of Professor Lars O. Eik from
Norway. It started in Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA), under The Program for
Agricultural and Natural Resources Transformations for Improved Livelihoods (PANTIL),
project 020 headed by Professor George Kifaro of the Department of Animal Science:
Breeding and Management Systems for Healthy and Productive Goats of which one of the
exercises was to raise Cashmere goats experimentally and once they performed well, they
would be distributed to capable farmers. At the present moment these animals are doing well
in a station called Mulbadow Farm (BASUTOLAND belonging to Haydom Lutheran
Hospital) in Mbulu district and a few have been distributed to some farmers in Mgeta, a
temperate and mountainous area, around 40 km away from Morogoro town.
34

4. SMALL RUMINANT PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN THE TROPICS
4.1 Introduction
Traditional small ruminant production in the tropics has been mainly developed in response to
climatic and other environmental conditions. In semi-arid and arid areas extensive kind of
production is practiced, with the animals having to travel long distances in search of pasture and
water. Normally the flocks are large. In wet areas intensive production is practiced where small
flocks are kept hand in hand with crop production. Modern small ruminant production may
either be extensive (ranching) or intensive/semi intensive also depending on environment. Under
both systems, a variety of types of daily management practices are found.
4.2 Type of people managing small ruminants
There are five types of people in the tropics that keep goats and sheep
(1) Nomadic pastoralists
(2) Transhumant pastoralists
(3) Farmers with mixed farms and relatively large number of animals
(4) Crop farmers who own a few animals
(5) Landless agricultural labourers
4.3 Management systems
Goat husbandry systems
The husbandry systems of goats can be categorized into 3.
a) Extensive production:
In this system goats graze over large areas of unwanted or marginal lands which are
unsuited for alternative agricultural use. Extensive systems provide least protection from
the natural environment and involve a minimum of labour (mainly family labour e.g.
children). Fencing and housing are unnecessary under this system.
Housing may be only required at night or during the rains. It is generally accepted that
goats, although hardy in other ways, are intolerant of wet or damp conditions. Under
such conditions goats are reputed to be particularly susceptible to pneumonia and in the
case of dairy goats, mastitis.
Nomadism
This is a livestock keeping system found under mainly arid, semi-arid and steppe
conditions. The animals are extensively grazed and several strategies are employed.
- Herd diversification - Capitalizing on different grazing habits.
- Loaning animals and sharing herds - A network of social contracts. Harsh
conditions prevail in some area while other areas are fine.
- Movement of herds - Seasonal migrations, short or long distance.
Nomadic pastoralists do not own permanent homesteads. They keep on moving with
their livestock depending on the availability of pasture and water. They may stay for a
long period on one locality as long as there is feed and water for their livestock. Limited
cropping is practiced, intensive systems are completely absent and no pasture
improvement is done.
35

Nomadism is found in East and South Mediterranean basin Sudano-Sahelian zone of
Africa and the Near and Muddle East. Nomads don’t have legal land tittles but may
claim the area used as tribal land. The balance of this system is endangered by
pressure of land changes of social order and increasing demands of quality of life. The
major problem with this system is overstocking of rangelands
Transhumance
This involves some shifting, rain-fed arable cultivation or sedentary cultivation system in
villages. The sedentary livestock owners cultivate some crops during the wet season, but
migrate away from their holdings during the dry season.
b) Intensive production
The goats are continuously housed or "zero-grazed" this provides maximum protection
from the adversities of difficult environments. The system is ideal for dairy goats and
perfect for small family herds. It makes no use of the independent feeding habits of the
goat (browsing), but cheap materials e.g. crop residues, industrial wastes and other
domestic refuse can be utilized. The system is suited to high-producing animals and
exotic breeds (and their crosses) are more likely to be successful on zero grazing than on
any other system. It is also very convenient for the control of feeding and mating.
c) Semi intensive system
This represents varying degrees of compromise between extensive and intensive
production and is largely dictated by the availability of land. It usually involves
controlled grazing of fenced pastures with supplementary concentrate feeding.
TETHERING commonly replaces fencing. In case of tethering, care must be taken that
there is no possibility of strangulation. Shade in case of sun, shelter in case of rain and
drinking water are important considerations in tethering.
It is essential to change the place of tethering everyday so that fresh herbage and a
variety of plants can be availed to the animal. The practice also minimizes disease
prevalence.
Sheep raising systems
In arid and semi-arid regions where feed isn’t sufficient for lamb production, the emphasis is
on maintenance of flocks for production of finer grades of wool. The other emphasis is on
meat. This type of production is apt to decrease in most countries.
The second type of sheep raising is found in semi-arid and semi-humid areas where intensive
agriculture isn’t possible. More emphasis is placed on lamb raising for wool. This type of
industry is found in better range areas where rainfall is deficient for farming or where the
topography is prohibits farming. These lands may comprise deserts, plains, foothills and
mountains that are used in different seasons of the year.
Humid farming areas emphasize on lamb production with wool. Sheep in these lands compete
with other grazing animals, i.e. beef and dairy cattle. Farm flocks range from 25 – 500. The
36

smaller flocks, which are generally farm scavengers with respect to forages, are given the
task of keeping the farmsteads and harvested fields free from weeds.
Transhumance: This system is still widely practiced in some sheep keeping areas. In
Europe, it is found in mountainous areas where farming people, their flocks and herds
migrate annually in the spring from their wintering grounds in the villages to the high
mountain pastures, returning in the Autumn to the valleys for their shelter and winter food.
The system remains almost unchanged in Europe, Asia and North Africa and involves whole
groups of people moving, existing as isolated tribes of several families, sharing a distinct
culture and participating in the communal migration involving many flocks. Elements of this
method of farming developed over centuries as a balanced ecological system still makes
sound senses in terms of using land resources.
Nomadic system: Whilst transhumant system(s) involve two main territories usually
differing in altitude, nomadic systems in their extreme may involve much more movement
and the tribal groups involved may live in tents all year around. Nomadic systems are
associated with the semi arid areas of the world where the movement is dictated by rainfall
pattern rather than by altitude.
Mountain or Range sheep production (Lamb production)
In addition to the subsistence farming associated with transhumance, there is specialized
range farming of the type found in Northern Europe and North America. These flocks vary
considerably in size and are largely complementary to lowland systems supplying lambs to be
finished in feed lots as in central North America or on grass and arable crops as in Britain and
North Europe. The mountain farms are also an important source of breeding ewes for lowland
lamb producing flocks. Wool is usually an important product.
Lowland lamb production:
This system is found in temperate or coastal areas suited for the growth of grass as in New
Zealand, Northern Europe and North America. Generally the small-scale breeding flocks
involved are either self contained or based on cross-bred hill sheep. The main products are
young lambs slaughtered towards the end of the growing season.
General flock management under tropical environments
It is common practice in both nomadic and sedentary flocks to combine the animals owned
by a number of different people in order to reduce the required number of herders. In this
way, good control of the animals and proper distribution over the grazing area can be
achieved.
In some places small holder farmers who own few animals and practice mixed farming sheep
flocks may be mixed with cattle herds and graze within communal grazing groups.
Flock control
(a) Fencing: Fences are constructed around the pastures using wire or live plants. Once
37

fenced, sheep do not require herders. The problem is that the fencing materials may be
expensive, theft and predation may be experienced and malicious people may destroy the
fences.
(b) Herding: Entire herding without fences applies throughout most of the tropics, except
perhaps in Australia and some parts of Africa. The advantage of herding is that animals
are more protected from theft and predatory animals.
(c) Tethering: This involves securing the animals with long ropes or light chains. It requires
some labour input but effective if carefully executed, allowing access to fresh sites
several times per day.
PRACTICAL WAYS OF INCREASING PRODUCTION THROUGH: -
OVERVIEW
Good reproductive performance is a prerequisite for any successful livestock production
programme. Undoubtedly, there is no milk if birth does not occur, no meat and fibres if
survival cannot be ensured. It is not surprising that above all, natural selection is directed
towards fitness or the ability of every creature to survive and to perpetuate its own kind.
Where farm resources are severely limited as it is often the case in SSA, reproduction failure
is the first sign of decreased productivity. It seems important, therefore, to determine the
actual level of reproductive performance and its variation between and within ecozones,
breeds and management systems before characteristics of losses which limit that performance
are highlighted.
In small ruminants, reproductive efficiency can be measured by fertility, prolificacy,
fecundity and survival. These four parameters together with age at first parturition and
parturition interval also measure the reproductive performance.
1) Reproductive Efficiency (Performance)
Short gestation intervals (150 days) and lactation periods (60 days when suckling only)
combined with the general lack of photoperiod anoestrous in tropical latitudes make
three parturitions in two years practically possible. These 8 to 9 months parturition
intervals often better fit the seasonal rainfall patterns in many regions than the 14 to 16
months (or greater) parturition intervals of cattle and buffalo. Thus, females may conceive
in one period of good feed and lactate in the next.
F M A M J JL A S O N D J F M A M J JL A S O N
Breeding period (F:- February; O:- October; J:- June)
Kidding/Lambing period (JL:- July; M:- March; N:- November)
Gestation period (Lactating or Empty, i.e. not pregnant)
38

One can calculate the above in a formula:-
Gestation period:- 150 days Number of lambings/ kidding in 2 years
Days open 60 days 365 * 2 days/210 days = 3.4 approx 3
lambings/kiddings
Total 210 days
A number of highly prolific sheep breeds have been distributed in some recent
publications. These include regions:-
- Europe –Finnish Landrace, Ramanov, Chios;
- USSR --- Svanka; Oceania – Booroola Merino
Developing Regions: - Caribbean – Barbados Blackbelly, Virgin Island White; North
Africa—Middle East.D’Man, Oman; China—Huyang, Hunyang; Southeast Asia—
Priangan
Prolific breeds generally produce twins and triplets and quadruplets are not uncommon.
Prolific breeds of goats have not been highlighted; however, in general goats are more
prolific than most sheep.
The advantages of multiple births to increased meat off take however increased selection
potential are realized only if the neonates live and their mothers produce sufficient milk to
raise them to weaning. In other words, under limited conditions, multiple births can
actually be a disadvantage reducing periodicity by stressing the breeding female and
reducing her productive lifetime.
The reproductive efficiency of sheep and goats favorably depends on the ability to rapidly
build herd numbers in response to favorable prices or feed surpluses.
2. Reproductive Behavior
Goats
Planned breeding requires an understanding of characteristics in goats that are transmitted
from generation to generation. One objective of animal breeding is to increase the
frequencies of desirable genes so as to achieve the ideal genotype, which will give the
characteristics required in the population. There is tremendous genetic variability inherent in
individual breeds of goats. Most of the characteristics that are important to the animal are
influenced by other factors as well as by the genes and are, therefore (genototypically and
phenotypically) highly susceptible to environmental factors over which the breeder has no
control. Live weights at a given age or milk yield per lactation are two characters of
economic significance that can be manipulated by use of quantitative data. Qualitative traits
such as presence or absence of horns are also of some importance in animal breeding. In the
Saanen breed of goats for example, the gene for polled ness is associated with
hermaphroditism, and polled goats must be avoided in breeding programs – horned bucks
are used instead.
39

Puberty
Puberty in goats as in other farm livestock is the period when the animal becomes
sexually mature. It precedes adult hood, and is reached at an age that varies considerably
with breed and also among individuals within a breed. In goats, sexual maturity is
reached quite early, but mating should be delayed to ensure that the dam is able to
accommodate the fetus without having to compete with available nutrients for her
growth. Due to this reason therefore, practically age is not a good criteria as live weight
by which to determine the right time for mating. It is therefore recommended that during
the flushing period both age and weight should be assessed. Crossbred Norwegian dairy
goats are normally bred at the age of one year with 18 kg weight (Personal research
work).
Fertility
Normal fertility is defined as the regular production of viable offspring. Shoats are
considered to be fertile if they produce normal spermatozoa or ova capable of
fertilization. Prolificacy on the other hand refers to the capacity of shoats to produce
many progeny. Fertility and Prolificacy are used simultaneously to describe the
reproductive capacity of individual breeds.
Expression of fertility
Fertility in shoats is most commonly expressed as:-
i. Services per Conception
ii. Litter size
iii. Kidding rate of percentage
iv. Kidding Interval
v. Service period
vi. Non-return rate
vii. Age at puberty
viii. Age at first kidding
ix. Regularity of Estrus Cycles
x. Interval between first service and conception
xi. Interval between kidding and first estrous (postpartum estrous)
xii. Percentage of does pregnant at first service
xiii. Average no of kids born per life-time and
xiv. Magnitude of reproductive problems in the flock.
Factors affecting fertility
Genetic factors
The genotype of individual breeds of goats is an important determinant of fertility.
Furthermore, various physiological aspects of reproduction such as conception, twinning
and kidding interval have an effect.
40

Fertility and Prolificacy increase with age of the goat.
E.g. Malabor goats, the proportion of twins and triplet births increased from 19 percent in
the 1st
kidding to 79 percent the 2nd
and later kiddings. Kilis goats in Texas have reached
maximum fertility at 5 and 7 years of age respectively.
Environmental factors
Environmental factors as well as ambient temperatures and seasonal changes,
management factors including handling of bucks and does at mating, detection of heat,
time of service, nutrition, and disease and parasites are important. Insufficient dietary
energy and protein are often the main limiting factors of efficient goat production in
tropical environments. It is essential for the goat farmer to make sure that rations provide
an adequate supply of both energy and protein
3. Reproductive Behavior and Breeding Systems
Sheep in the tropics are low producing and they yield below their genetic potential
because of sub-standard management practices. It is evidenced that some sheep producers
are reluctant to change traditional practice because they are tied to minimum production
inputs. Similarly, the record of governments in conducting breeding programs for tropical
and semitropical sheep is extremely poor.
Despite such setbacks, sheep improvement has been carried out and has produced breeds
(over a long period of time) such as the:-
• Awassi,
• Lohi,
• Desert Sudanese
• Priangan
• Barbados Blackbelly
• Blackheaded Persian (found in East Africa)
• Dorper (found in East Africa)
However, the results of these few breeds indicate that the process of breed formation and
improvement can be speeded up through the application of modern breeding systems and
techniques.
Breeding improvement programs should be instituted only after careful consideration of the
breed and its production capacity. This is because the existing indigenous sheep (or goats)
have the genotype for environmental conditions in which they thrive.
4. Reproductive Behavior and Breeding Capacity
Breeding capacity
Temperate (zone) and Tropical zone sheep all gestate for about 5 months, 150±5 days
(similar to goats as well). The lambs are dropped in the late winter and spring months,
corresponding roughly with the beginning of warm weather and the season of new vegetative
growth. This is because they cycle according to day-light etc.
41

This is not so with the tropical sheep, they do not exhibit this extreme periodicity. While their
breeding behavior is influenced somewhat by the length of day and ambient temperature, the
availability of forage and the incidence of disease have greater effects on the receptivity of
the ewes and the fertility of the rams.
Breeding however, is controlled by some pastoral flocks, e.g. by use of the kunan in
Sudanese Desert sheep or the ram’s apron in Masai flocks, so that lambs are dropped at about
the same time of the rainy season. On the other hand, lambing occurs all year round, but with
two or more peak periods. Most livestock centers in the Tropics concerned with sheep are
now researching with physiology of reproduction and breeding behavior.
Q1. With appropriate examples write brief examples on the following:-
a) Synchronization for improved reproductive performance in goats
Also known as oestrous synchronization is the process of targeting female goats (does) to
come to heat within a short time frame (36 to 96 hours). This is achieved through the use of
one or more hormones. GnRH and Prostaglandin F2 are two hormones used in the “Synch”
protocols during oestrus synchronization. The synchronization of the estrous cycle is often
used in the Diary and Beef industries (and elsewhere), goats and sheep in order to decrease
the costs for Artificial Insemination or feeding a bull/buck/ram by reducing the period in
which it takes for all cows/does/ewes to be in heat and fall pregnant.
Synchronization of estrus is a useful tool for improving and maintaining the production of
milk and meat, as well as reducing the labour force or cost, shortening the breeding season,
throughout the year in goat farms (Nur et al. 2013, Andrabi et al. 2015). Additionally, oestrus
synchronization in goats is practical for optimizing the function of reproduction (Ahmad et
al.2014). Therefore, estrus synchronization is extensively applied in the reproductive
management of goats.
Research has been conducted into different ways farmers can perform estrous
synchronization such as progesterone injections or a Progesterone Releasing Intra-vaginal
Device [PRID].[4]
The PRID is a sponge that is inserted into the vagina of a cow to stop the
natural estrous cycle (for it acts as a corpus luteum), because progesterone is the hormone
that signals the body to stop the cycle because fertilisation has occurred. When the sponge is
removed the cycle restarts. This apparatus is useful in manipulating the cycle so that multiple
cows can be ovulated around the same time. estrous synchronisation has major advantages in
making artificial insemination more practical. Increasing the productivity of embryo transfer
and artificial insemination is economically profitable as the costs associated with veterinarian
and semen services are reduced. The reduction of costs occur because vets are required for
less time to do the inseminating because the period of ovulation of the herd is decreased to 2-
5 days. There are many different injection methods that have been put into practise in order to
manipulate the estrous cycle. These involve injections into each cow with a measured amount
of progesterone or progestin and waiting 5-7 days, or until heat signals occur, before moving
onto different impregnating methods such as joining the cows or heifers with a bull.
• A shortened calving season provides producers a better opportunity to offer improved
management and observation of the cow herd, which should result in fewer losses at
calving.
42

• Shortened calving periods also facilitates improvements in herd health and
management such as uniformity in timing of vaccinations and routine management
practices resulting in decreased labor requirements.
• Another benefit is that cow nutrition can be improved by grouping cows according to
stage of gestation and feeding each group accordingly.
• An additional benefit is that the calf crop will be more uniform in age and size which
can lead to an advantage in the market place.
b) Positive and Negative Consequences of inbreeding
Inbreeding is the mating together of closely related animals, for example mother/son,
father/daughter, sibling/sibling matings and half-sibling/half-sibling. It is the pairing
of animals which are more closely related than the average population. For breeders,
it is a useful way of fixing traits in a breed - the pedigrees of some animals that exist
for further research purposes
To produce animals which closely meet the breed standard, breeders commonly mate
together animals which are related and which share desirable characteristics. Over
time, sometimes only one or two generations, those characteristics will become
homozygous (genetically uniform) and all offspring of the inbred animal will inherit
the genes for those characteristics (breed true). Breeders can predict how the offspring
will look. "Line-breeding" is not a term used by geneticists, but comes from livestock
husbandry. It indicates milder forms of inbreeding. Line-breeding is still a form of
inbreeding i.e. breeding within a family line and includes cousin/cousin, aunt/nephew,
niece/uncle and grandparent/grandchild. The difference between line-breeding and
inbreeding may be defined differently for different species of animals and even for
different breeds within the same species. It is complicated by the fact that an animal’s
half-brother might also be her father!
However, inbreeding holds potential problems. The limited gene-pool caused by continued
inbreeding means that deleterious genes become widespread and the breed loses vigour.
Laboratory animal suppliers depend on this to create uniform strains of animal which are
immuno-depressed or breed true for a particular disorder e.g. epilepsy. Such animals are so
inbred as to be genetically identical (clones!), a situation normally only seen in identical
twins. Similarly, a controlled amount of inbreeding can be used to fix desirable traits in farm
livestock e.g. milk yield, lean/fat ratios, rate of growth etc.
5. Breeds
Breed: Group of population of animals (plants) linked to a common origin or by ancestry and
identifying traits (frequently color) which distinguish them as belonging to a certain group
and their primary identifying characteristics are generally passed from parent to offspring in a
uniform manner.
Or
An interbreeding population of more or less similar animals developed in a given
geographical area.
43

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