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1,[object Object]
Objectives of Unit 2:,[object Object],Discuss findings/experience of Assignment 1: “Doing Nothing”,[object Object],Reflect on the concept of “theory” in Sociology,[object Object],Introduce the ‘classical’(traditional) perspectives in Sociology,[object Object],Introduce the newer perspectives in Sociology,[object Object],Introduce a global perspective in Sociology (unit 3 & 9),[object Object],Introduce briefly common methodological approaches (tools) in Sociology,[object Object],2,[object Object]
3,[object Object],Assignment 1: “Doing Nothing”,[object Object]
4,[object Object],A theory is…. Hmmm !?,[object Object]
5,[object Object]
What is a Theory?,[object Object],6,[object Object],Attempts to understand the (social) world and our place in it, has led to the development of theories,[object Object],Theories are abstract propositions about how things are as well as how they should be; an explanation of how we think things work,[object Object],We refer to theories as approaches, schools of thought, paradigmsor perspectives.,[object Object],This implies that they are different approaches!,[object Object],Social theories are guiding principles or abstract modelsthat attempt to explain and predict the social world,[object Object],A theory is comparable to a map. When you discover new places, you have to modify this map,[object Object]
7,[object Object]
8,[object Object]
9,[object Object]
10,[object Object],Is there something like ‘down’ or ‘above’? ‘down’ and ‘above’ become relative…,[object Object]
Example of a theoretical model: “the social change model”,[object Object],11,[object Object]
Theories are dynamic, they change…,[object Object],12,[object Object],Theories have to be tested: ,[object Object],That’s what scientifically research is all about! ,[object Object],We develop theories and test them, modify them to fit the reality better, why?,[object Object],Theories will change over time, because their area of study they seek to understand and explain: ,[object Object],Society, itself changes over time,[object Object],Theories seek to understand society in periods of both order and change,[object Object],Social change makes theoretical change a continual necessity,[object Object]
13,[object Object],The object of study is on the move,[object Object]
Have you ever tried to photograph a moving object?,[object Object],14,[object Object]
Different theoretical perspectives,[object Object],15,[object Object],In attempting to develop theories about humans and societies, sociologists face a wide range of choices:,[object Object],What issues should we study? How should we link facts together to form theories? What assumptions might underpin our theories? ,[object Object],I.e. what theoretical maps guides the study of phenomena?,[object Object],=Theoretical Perspective,[object Object],This is a basic image that guides thinking and research,[object Object],There exists an array of basic images that guide thinking and research!,[object Object]
The elephant metaphor:poem by John Godfrey Saxe (1816-18-87),[object Object],16,[object Object],Wall,[object Object],Fan,[object Object],Snake,[object Object],Rope ,[object Object],Spear,[object Object],Tree,[object Object]
The poem/parable’s moral:,[object Object],17,[object Object]
18,[object Object],‘Classical’, traditional perspectives in Sclg,[object Object]
3 classical perspectives in Sclg:,[object Object],Macro-level perspectives:,[object Object],Structural Functionalism,[object Object],Conflict theory,[object Object],Micro-level perspective:,[object Object],Symbolic interactionism,[object Object]
20,[object Object],Structural Functionalism,[object Object]
Key tenets Structural Functionalism,[object Object],21,[object Object],Is a framework for building theory that envisages society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability,[object Object],Our lives are guided by social structure,[object Object],i.e. relative stable patterns of social behaviour,[object Object],This frameworks understands social structure in terms of its social functions,[object Object],i.e. functions/consequences for the operation of society,[object Object],Society is stable, an ordered system of interrelated partsof the social structures. Each structure has a function that contributes to the continued stability of society.,[object Object]
Founding Fathers of Structural Functionalism: ,[object Object],“I focus on social solidarity”,[object Object],“Society is comparable to the human body”,[object Object],“ To promote  social integration during times of radical change”,[object Object],Herbert Spencer,[object Object],Emile Durkheim,[object Object],Auguste Comte,[object Object]
Key tenets Structural Functionalism ,[object Object],The SF perspective organizes sociological observations by identifying various structures of society and studying the function of each one.,[object Object],E.g.  of social structures (social institutions) are: the family, the educational system, politics, religion, mass media systems and the economy,[object Object]
Other theorists that have contributed to SF perspective,[object Object],24,[object Object],“Society is a system, with parts that have basic tasks,  all members should be socialized to maintain order”,[object Object],“Social functions can be expanded in manifest, latent and dysfunctions”,[object Object],Talcott Parsons,[object Object],Robert Merton,[object Object]
Social functions expanded (Merton),[object Object],25,[object Object],The consequences of any social pattern are likely todifferfor various members of society,[object Object],E.g. traditional families provide crucial support for the development of children but also confer privileges on men while limiting the opportunities for women ,[object Object],We don’t always perceive all functions of a particular social structure:,[object Object],Manifest functions: the recognized/intended consequences of any social pattern,[object Object],Latent functions: consequences that are largely unrecognized and unintended ,[object Object],Not all the effects if any social structure turn out to be useful: Social Dysfunctions,[object Object],i.e. any pattern’s undesirable consequences for the operation of society,[object Object]
(dys)functions of….?,[object Object],26,[object Object],What are the main functions (in terms of manifest and latent) and dysfunctions of the following social structures:,[object Object],The family,[object Object],Education ,[object Object],Religion,[object Object],Mass media,[object Object],The economy,[object Object],Jail,[object Object],Gaming ,[object Object]
Critique on Structural Functionalism,[object Object],27,[object Object],How can we assume that society has a natural order when social patterns vary from place to place and changeover time?,[object Object],By focusing on social integration and harmony SF tends to overlook/hide social inequalities based on social categories such as: ethnicity, gender, age and social class,[object Object]
28,[object Object],Conflict Theory,[object Object]
Key tenets Conflict Theory,[object Object],29,[object Object],Is a framework for building theory that envisages society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change,[object Object],It highlights divisionsin society based on inequalities,[object Object],Inequalitiesbased on social class, ethnicity (or race), sex and age,[object Object],Theory focuses on dominance,competitionandsocial change,[object Object],Conflictbetween categories of people (social groups): dominant vs. disadvantaged categories. E.g. Rich vs. poor,[object Object],Aim is not only to understand how inequality is rooted in the way society is organized, but also to do reduce inequalities:,[object Object],By promoting and bring about Social Change,[object Object]
Conflict Theory ,[object Object], has a materialistic view of society. It focuses on labor practices and economic reality,[object Object],takes a critical stancetowards existing social arrangements (labor market, democracy, inequality between social groups),[object Object],doesn’t believe that science can be objective: “all theoretical approaches have political consequences”. i.e. theories have  hidden agendas,[object Object],Believes that transformation of society is inevitable(social change),[object Object]
Founding father of Conflict theory:,[object Object],31,[object Object],“My main task is not to just analyze how society reproduces inequality, but my task is to change this!”,[object Object],Karl Marx,[object Object]
Critique on Conflict Theory,[object Object],32,[object Object],CT highlights inequality and overlooks how shared values or interdependence generate unity among members of society,[object Object],CT sometimes pursuits explicitly political goals (it wants to bring social change) and because of this it sometimeslacks scientific objectivity*,[object Object],* The objectivity of science is a much disputable notion in science on itself ,[object Object]
Critique on how SF & CT approach ‘Society’,[object Object],33,[object Object],Both the SF and CT envisage society in very broad terms. “Society becomes a thing on itself” describing our lives as a composite of for example:  “family” or “social class”,[object Object],we have criticized this notion in unit 1!,[object Object],Both SF and CT are considered conservative theories (gone out of fashion!),[object Object]
34,[object Object],Symbolic Interactionism,[object Object]
3. Symbolic Interactionism*,[object Object],Is a theoretical framework that envisages societyas the product of everyday interactions of people doing things together,[object Object],Is influenced by Weber’s social action perspective. i.e. a perspective that emphasizes the need to understand a setting from the point of view of people in it.,[object Object],Human meanings and action shape society,[object Object],We act toward things on the basis of their meanings,[object Object],Individual/social groups give meaning to the experience of life,[object Object],Meaning is process of constant negotiation:,[object Object],i.e. meanings can change or be modified through interaction and through time,[object Object],*SI is the most influential sociological perspective!,[object Object]
Founding father & inspiration of SI ,[object Object],36,[object Object],“Meanings and action shape society. Modern society is the product of a new way of thinking, not just of new technology and capitalism”,[object Object],“I look at how we assemble our sense of self over time based on social experience”,[object Object],Max Weber,[object Object],George Mead,[object Object]
Key tenets of Symbolic Interactionism,[object Object],37,[object Object],Through the human process of finding meaningin our surroundings, we define our identities, bodies and feelings, and come to socially construct the world around us.,[object Object],Society as a mosaic of subjective meanings and variable responses:,[object Object],E.g. the meaning of the membership of a gang member:,[object Object],The one perceives being part of a gang as something to be proud of, you get symbolic ‘status’ in an other part of society, you are appreciated by fellow gang members, they are your family. ,[object Object],The other sees gangs as something to be feared, a menace for society, a collection of organized crime, peer pressure and stupidity,[object Object]
Changing meanings of the concept of beauty for teenagers(1975 vs. 2010):,[object Object]
Critique on Symbolic Interactions,[object Object],39,[object Object],By focusing on day-to-day experience/interactions we overlook the workings of larger social structures,[object Object]
Conclusion so far…,[object Object],40,[object Object],Not one single perspective can cover in its totality the dynamic character of society and social experience.,[object Object],A some what more better understanding of society comes from the combination of different perspectives:,[object Object],Sociology examines the social world by looking at functions and dysfunctions, conflicts and consensus, actions and meanings,[object Object],And still, as we will see, some other angles are lacking!,[object Object],Because all 3 traditional perspectives have weakness as well as strengths, they will probably never fully explain the totality of social phenomena, even when taken together…,[object Object]
41,[object Object],Contemporary, emerging perspectives,[object Object]
3 new perspectives in Sociology,[object Object],New perspectives will, and indeed must, continue to rise. Changes in society, bring changes in our conceptual way of studying it:,[object Object],Each is linked to a major contemporary social transformation:,[object Object],Changing ideas about gender roles,[object Object],Changing notions of sexual identity,[object Object],Changes associated with a post-industrial, technologically based society,[object Object],42,[object Object]
43,[object Object],Feminist Theory,[object Object]
First female sociologist,[object Object],44,[object Object],“I can be considered the first female in sociology. My area of expertise is the study of urban life, I am one of the pioneers of the Chicago School”,[object Object],Jane Addams,[object Object]
1. Feminist theory,[object Object],45,[object Object],Looks at gender inequalities in society and the way gender structures the social world,[object Object],Gender is a social construct,[object Object]
46,[object Object]
E.g. A feminist analysis of female fairy tale characters ,[object Object],47,[object Object]
48,[object Object]
49,[object Object],Queer Theory,[object Object]
2. Queer theory,[object Object],50,[object Object],Proposes that categories of sexual identity are social constructs and that no sexual category is fundamentally either deviant or normal,[object Object]
51,[object Object],Post-modernism,[object Object]
2. Postmodern theory,[object Object],52,[object Object],Suggests that there is no universal, knowable truth: realities are fluid and diverse,[object Object],The kaleidoscope metaphor,[object Object]
53,[object Object],“It has all been done. The extreme limit of possibilities have been reached. It has deconstructed its entire universe. So, all that are left are pieces. All that remains to be done is play around with the pieces: that is post-modern”,[object Object],Baudrillard,[object Object]
54,[object Object]
55,[object Object],Global perspective in Sociology,[object Object]
Global perspective,[object Object],56,[object Object],The study of the larger world and each society’s place in it,[object Object],Importance of interrelations ,[object Object],Importance of contexts,[object Object],We will continue with this theme in unit 3 and unit 9,[object Object]
57,[object Object],Common methods in Sociology,[object Object]
58,[object Object],“There is no absolutely objective scientific analysis of culture….or social phenomena independent of special and one-sided viewpoints according to which …they are selected, analyzed and organized”  (Weber, 1949: 72),[object Object],Max Weber,[object Object]
59,[object Object]
60,[object Object],Distinction between Quantative and Qualitative research methods,[object Object],Quantative: uses data that can easily be converted into numbers, such as a survey or an experiment ,[object Object],E.g. Censo 2010,[object Object]
61,[object Object]
62,[object Object],Qualitative:  involves data that cannot easily be converted to numbers, such as observation or informal interviews.,[object Object],Most sociological research uses the scientific method,[object Object],This is the standard for acquiring and verifying empirical scientific knowledge:,[object Object],After conducting a literature review, a researcher forms a hypothesis stating a potential relationship between 2 or more variables:,[object Object],The number of friendships at the work & the level of job satisfaction,[object Object],e.g. more friendships at the workplace increases job satisfaction,[object Object],Variables must be clearly defined so that they can be measured,[object Object],Finally data is collected and the hypotheses tested (deductive),[object Object]
Steps of the scientific Method,[object Object],Starting from 1 to 7 = Deductive research,[object Object],Starting from 5 (4) to 1 = Inductive research,[object Object],63,[object Object]
1. Ethnographic methods,[object Object],64,[object Object],One way to collect data is through ethnography, a method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities,[object Object],It involves: ,[object Object],Active participation in and observation of a naturally occurring setting and a written account (field notes) of what goes on there. ,[object Object],In participant observation the research observes and becomes a member in the social setting ,[object Object],Anthropology uses this method often,[object Object]
Ethnography: ,[object Object],65,[object Object],Snow white joined the 7 dwarfs in their private homes, here she could observe their social practices,[object Object]
2. Interviews,[object Object],66,[object Object],Involves direct, face-to-face contact with respondents. ,[object Object],The researcher identifies the target population that she wishes to study and then selects a sample of people to be interviewed from that population,[object Object],close-ended questions: ,[object Object],E.g. Are you for or against the legislation of abortus? (yes-no),[object Object],open-ended question:,[object Object],What is your opinion about legalizing abortus? please elaborate…,[object Object],What do you think of married couples cheating on each other?,[object Object]
3. Surveys,[object Object],67,[object Object],Surveys are questionnaires that are administrated to a sample of respondents selected from a target group population,[object Object],Tend to look at Large-scale social patterns and employs statistics methods of analysis,[object Object],http://www.censo2010.aw/,[object Object]
68,[object Object],URL: www.censo2010.aw,[object Object]
4. Experimental methods,[object Object],69,[object Object],Experiments are formal test of whether an independent variable causes the dependent variable that are performed in a controlled setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled.,[object Object],Comparison between experimental group vs. control group (sample without intervention),[object Object],Experiments in social science are very difficult to conduct because of ethical questions:,[object Object],Twins separated at birth, one grows-up in a nice family, one in a dysfunctional family?,[object Object]
Pill to make you dance at a party when you don’t like dancing ,[object Object],70,[object Object],Control: she takes a placebo pill,[object Object],Experiment: she takes the to be tested pill,[object Object]
5. Emerging research tools:,[object Object],71,[object Object],Life stories (narratives),[object Object],Diaries,[object Object],Logs and time-budgets,[object Object],Letters,[object Object],Visual sociology: Photography,[object Object],Visual sociology: Film and video,[object Object]
Issues in Social science research,[object Object],72,[object Object],Social scientists/researches should be Value-free ,[object Object],Code of ethics to avoid bias, protect respondents from harms, privacy issues and unethical behavior in the name of science etc.,[object Object],On the wikispace you can find examples of different code of ethics for social sciences,[object Object]
E.g. Unethical research,[object Object],73,[object Object],http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/02/health/research/02infect.html?_r=1&ref=todayspaper,[object Object],Article trackback:,[object Object]
74,[object Object],Awakening thesociological imagination:,[object Object],“Studying = feeling like a space traveler, flying above earth, fascinated by its organizing ecology & exploring its encoded meanings”,[object Object],N.D.L.,[object Object]
75,[object Object],Social Scientists…,[object Object]
Assignment 2:,[object Object],76,[object Object]
Understanding the London Riots,[object Object],77,[object Object],See Assignment 2 on the wikispace: “Free-styling” sociological imagination: Understanding the London Riots.,[object Object],As sociologists-in-training we will attempt to understand the riotscarefully. Follow the instructions for this assignment on the wikispace.,[object Object]

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Notas del editor

  1. Macro level: focus on broad social structures that characterize society as a whole. Micro level: focus on social interaction in specific situations (focus on action, interaction and meaning to experience)
  2. Comte father of sociology. His context: examined social changes as French revolution and industrial revolution. Spencer was inspired by Darwinism, he studies the human body also, and used this as analogy for society. Just as the body is dived in parts with each a function, so is society.
  3. Parsons, a US Sociologist elaborated further on the different parts/functions of society and emphasized on the role of socialization in society. Merton expands the notion of social functions further and introduces to concepts of manifest, latent functions and social dysfunctions.
  4. Max weber was the founder of social action perspective and this perspective influenced symbolic interactionism