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IMPLICATURE
ENTAILMENT
       1. Definition
     2. Characteristics
      3. Classification
4. Subtypes of entailment
Definition

• Definition 1: E is a relationship that applies
  between two sentences, where the truth of
  one implies the truth of the other because of
  the meanings of the words involved (Goddard,
  1998).
• Definition 2: An entailment is something that
  logically follows from what is asserted in the
  utterance.” [Yule, 1996]
2. Characteristics
• 2.1 Entailment is concerned with the meaning
  of the sentence itself
• 2.2 Hyponymy involves entailment.
• 2.3 En applies cumulatively
• 2.4 Entailment can also involve the use of
  determiners
3. Classification
3.1 One- way and two-way entailment
3.1.1 One- way entailment: The first sentence
  entails the second but not the other way
  round
3.1.2 Two-way entailment: is the entailment
  that has meaning relationship and the
  sentences that contain mutual entailment are
  paraphrases of each other.
3. Classification
    3.2 Background and foreground
               entailment
Background entailments helping to determine
  context
Foreground entailments contributing to the
  main point of utterance (stress pattern )
4. Subtypes of entailment
              4.1 Assertion
4.1.1 Definition
A declarative sentence typically asserts that a
  state of affair exists. In other words, assertion
  is the characteristic of all declarative
  sentences.
4. Subtypes of entailment
               4.1 Assertion
        4.1.2 Principles of assertion
• A proposition is always true in some but not in all of
  the possible worlds in the context set.
• Any assertive utterance should expresses a
  proposition, relative to each possible world in the
  context set, and that proposition should have truth
  value in each possible world in the context set.
• The same proposition is expressed relative to each
  possible world in the context set.
4. Subtypes of entailment
           4.2 Presupposition
4.2.1Definition: Presupposition is “what a
  speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of
  the message already knows.”[Richards et al,
  1987]
• Ex: John doesn’t write poems anymore. ->
  presupposes that John once wrote poetry
4. Subtypes of entailment
           4.2 Presupposition
4.2.2Characteristics
• The presupposition of an utterance remains
  the same under its NEGATION
• The presupposition of an utterance remains
  the same under its INTERROGATION
• The presupposition of an utterance may be
  cancelled under its EXTENSION
4. Subtypes of entailment
           4.2 Presupposition
• 4.2.3 Comparison between entailment and
  presupposition
  Entailment                  Presupposition

  The relationship            Presupposition is often
  between two                 treated as the
  sentences where the         relationship between
  truth of one (A)            two propositions.
  requires the truth of the
  other (B).
4. Subtypes of entailment
  4.3 The relation between assertion
           and presupposition
• Propositions are presupposed in a conversation if
  they are on record as belonging to the common
  ground between the speakers. When an assertion is
  made and accepted in the conversation, its content
  is added to the common ground, and the the truth of
  the proposition in question will be presupposed in
  later stages
1. Definition

• Implicature is a technical term, which refers
  to what is suggested in an utterance, even
  though neither expressed nor strictly
  implied.
• Example:
     John is meeting a woman this evening.
+> The woman John is meeting this evening is
  not his mother, his sister or his wife.
2. Subtypes of implicature

• Implicature includes two types which are
  conversational implicature and conventional
  one.
2.1. Conversational implicature

• 2.1.1. Definition
• Conversational implicature: Implications derived
  on the basis of conversational principles and
  assumptions, relying on more than the linguistic
  meaning of words in a sentence.
• A (conversationally) implicates B if it is the case
  that uttering A in a certain conversational
  context systematically suggests, everything else
  being equal, that B is true. However, the
  implicature can be called off (i.e., cancelled).
2.1. Conversational implicature
• Example 1:
• Student A: Do you like Linguistics?
• Student B: Well, let’s just say I don’t jump for
  joy before class.
• +> A asked B about his feelings about the
  class, and B said B didn’t celebrate before the
  class. It shows the uninterested feeling of B
  about Linguistics subject
2.1. Conversational implicature
• - Cooperative Principle:
• 1. Quantity: give the right amount of information
  (not too little, not too much).
• 2. Quality: try to say only what is true (don't say
  that for which you lack adequate evidence; don't
  say what you know to be false).
• 3. Relevance: make what you say relevant to the
  topic at hand.
• 4. Manner: be clear (avoid ambiguity, excessive
  wordiness, obscurity, etc.).
2.1. Conversational implicature
• - Implicatures arise from the interaction of the
  following 3 factors:
• 1. The proposition actually expressed in the
  utterance,
• 2. Possibly certain features of the context (in
  any of the 3 notions of ‘context’)
• 3. The assumption that the speaker is obeying
  the rules of conversation to the best of their
  ability.
2.1. Conversational implicature
• Ex2: A ‘standard’ implicature (speaker is
  trying to obey the rules conversation).
      A: Will Sally be at the meeting this
  afternoon?
      B. Her car broke down.
      +> Sally won't be at the meeting.
2.1.2. Type of conversonal implicature

• Conversational implicature includes
  generalized conversational implicature and
  particularized conversational implicature.
2.1.2. Type of conversonal implicature
• * Generalized conversational implicature:
• +No special knowledge is required in the
  context
• +a/an X =>not speaker’s X
Generalized conversational
              implicature
• Example 4
• "Fred thinks there is a meeting tonight."
• +> Fred doesn't know for sure that there is a
  meeting tonight.
• Example 5
• The Browns went to a park outside the city
  last week
2.1.2. Type of conversonal implicature
• Scalar implicature: is greater detail of a
  particular sort of implicatures, expressing
  quantity and terms are listed from the highest
  to the lowest value.
Scalar implicature:
• Example:
• I ate some of the cake => this sentence implies “I
  did not eat all of the cake”
• In the utterance some of the boys went to the
  party, the word some implicates "not all of the
  boys went to the party."
• The words none, some, and all form an
  implicational scale, in which the use of one form
  implicates that the use of a stronger form is not
  possible.
2.1.2. Type of conversonal implicature
• * Particularized conversational implicature:
• +Special knowledge is required in special
  context in which speaker and hearer
  understand only.
• In another word, a particularized implicature
  is a conversational implicature that is
  derivable only in a specific context.
Particularized conversational implicature
• Example 1
• Vernon: Do you like Monica?
  Bill: She’s the cream in my coffee.
• +> Bill’s implicated message: yes, more than you
  know
• Bill must be speaking metaphorically, and there
  must be a reason for doing so. A simple “yes”
  apparently wasn’t enough. He’s trying to tell
  Vernon that ordinary words can’t express what
  he feels for Monica, so he’s using a metaphor to
  indicate that his feelings are at another level.
Particularized conversational implicature

• Example 2:
• A: What on earth has happened to the roast
  beef?
  B: The dog is looking very happy.
•      In the above exchange, A will likely derive
  the implicature "the dog ate the roast beef"
  from B’s statement. This is due to A’s belief
  that B is observing the conversational maxim
   of relation or relevance in the specific context
  of A’s question.
2.2. Conventional implicature


• Conventional implicature is an
  implicature that is:
• part of a lexical item’s or expression’s agreed
  meaning, rather than derived from principles
  of language use, and
• not part of the conditions for the truth of the
  item or expression.
2.2. Conventional implicature
• Example:
• Joe is poor but happy
• +> This sentence implies poverty and
  happiness are not compatible but in spite of
  this Joe is still happy. This sentence will always
  necessarily imply “Surprisingly Joe is happy in
  spite of being poor”.

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Pragmatics implicature

  • 2. ENTAILMENT 1. Definition 2. Characteristics 3. Classification 4. Subtypes of entailment
  • 3. Definition • Definition 1: E is a relationship that applies between two sentences, where the truth of one implies the truth of the other because of the meanings of the words involved (Goddard, 1998). • Definition 2: An entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance.” [Yule, 1996]
  • 4. 2. Characteristics • 2.1 Entailment is concerned with the meaning of the sentence itself • 2.2 Hyponymy involves entailment. • 2.3 En applies cumulatively • 2.4 Entailment can also involve the use of determiners
  • 5. 3. Classification 3.1 One- way and two-way entailment 3.1.1 One- way entailment: The first sentence entails the second but not the other way round 3.1.2 Two-way entailment: is the entailment that has meaning relationship and the sentences that contain mutual entailment are paraphrases of each other.
  • 6. 3. Classification 3.2 Background and foreground entailment Background entailments helping to determine context Foreground entailments contributing to the main point of utterance (stress pattern )
  • 7. 4. Subtypes of entailment 4.1 Assertion 4.1.1 Definition A declarative sentence typically asserts that a state of affair exists. In other words, assertion is the characteristic of all declarative sentences.
  • 8. 4. Subtypes of entailment 4.1 Assertion 4.1.2 Principles of assertion • A proposition is always true in some but not in all of the possible worlds in the context set. • Any assertive utterance should expresses a proposition, relative to each possible world in the context set, and that proposition should have truth value in each possible world in the context set. • The same proposition is expressed relative to each possible world in the context set.
  • 9. 4. Subtypes of entailment 4.2 Presupposition 4.2.1Definition: Presupposition is “what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.”[Richards et al, 1987] • Ex: John doesn’t write poems anymore. -> presupposes that John once wrote poetry
  • 10. 4. Subtypes of entailment 4.2 Presupposition 4.2.2Characteristics • The presupposition of an utterance remains the same under its NEGATION • The presupposition of an utterance remains the same under its INTERROGATION • The presupposition of an utterance may be cancelled under its EXTENSION
  • 11. 4. Subtypes of entailment 4.2 Presupposition • 4.2.3 Comparison between entailment and presupposition Entailment Presupposition The relationship Presupposition is often between two treated as the sentences where the relationship between truth of one (A) two propositions. requires the truth of the other (B).
  • 12. 4. Subtypes of entailment 4.3 The relation between assertion and presupposition • Propositions are presupposed in a conversation if they are on record as belonging to the common ground between the speakers. When an assertion is made and accepted in the conversation, its content is added to the common ground, and the the truth of the proposition in question will be presupposed in later stages
  • 13. 1. Definition • Implicature is a technical term, which refers to what is suggested in an utterance, even though neither expressed nor strictly implied. • Example: John is meeting a woman this evening. +> The woman John is meeting this evening is not his mother, his sister or his wife.
  • 14. 2. Subtypes of implicature • Implicature includes two types which are conversational implicature and conventional one.
  • 15. 2.1. Conversational implicature • 2.1.1. Definition • Conversational implicature: Implications derived on the basis of conversational principles and assumptions, relying on more than the linguistic meaning of words in a sentence. • A (conversationally) implicates B if it is the case that uttering A in a certain conversational context systematically suggests, everything else being equal, that B is true. However, the implicature can be called off (i.e., cancelled).
  • 16. 2.1. Conversational implicature • Example 1: • Student A: Do you like Linguistics? • Student B: Well, let’s just say I don’t jump for joy before class. • +> A asked B about his feelings about the class, and B said B didn’t celebrate before the class. It shows the uninterested feeling of B about Linguistics subject
  • 17. 2.1. Conversational implicature • - Cooperative Principle: • 1. Quantity: give the right amount of information (not too little, not too much). • 2. Quality: try to say only what is true (don't say that for which you lack adequate evidence; don't say what you know to be false). • 3. Relevance: make what you say relevant to the topic at hand. • 4. Manner: be clear (avoid ambiguity, excessive wordiness, obscurity, etc.).
  • 18. 2.1. Conversational implicature • - Implicatures arise from the interaction of the following 3 factors: • 1. The proposition actually expressed in the utterance, • 2. Possibly certain features of the context (in any of the 3 notions of ‘context’) • 3. The assumption that the speaker is obeying the rules of conversation to the best of their ability.
  • 19. 2.1. Conversational implicature • Ex2: A ‘standard’ implicature (speaker is trying to obey the rules conversation). A: Will Sally be at the meeting this afternoon? B. Her car broke down. +> Sally won't be at the meeting.
  • 20. 2.1.2. Type of conversonal implicature • Conversational implicature includes generalized conversational implicature and particularized conversational implicature.
  • 21. 2.1.2. Type of conversonal implicature • * Generalized conversational implicature: • +No special knowledge is required in the context • +a/an X =>not speaker’s X
  • 22. Generalized conversational implicature • Example 4 • "Fred thinks there is a meeting tonight." • +> Fred doesn't know for sure that there is a meeting tonight. • Example 5 • The Browns went to a park outside the city last week
  • 23. 2.1.2. Type of conversonal implicature • Scalar implicature: is greater detail of a particular sort of implicatures, expressing quantity and terms are listed from the highest to the lowest value.
  • 24. Scalar implicature: • Example: • I ate some of the cake => this sentence implies “I did not eat all of the cake” • In the utterance some of the boys went to the party, the word some implicates "not all of the boys went to the party." • The words none, some, and all form an implicational scale, in which the use of one form implicates that the use of a stronger form is not possible.
  • 25. 2.1.2. Type of conversonal implicature • * Particularized conversational implicature: • +Special knowledge is required in special context in which speaker and hearer understand only. • In another word, a particularized implicature is a conversational implicature that is derivable only in a specific context.
  • 26. Particularized conversational implicature • Example 1 • Vernon: Do you like Monica? Bill: She’s the cream in my coffee. • +> Bill’s implicated message: yes, more than you know • Bill must be speaking metaphorically, and there must be a reason for doing so. A simple “yes” apparently wasn’t enough. He’s trying to tell Vernon that ordinary words can’t express what he feels for Monica, so he’s using a metaphor to indicate that his feelings are at another level.
  • 27. Particularized conversational implicature • Example 2: • A: What on earth has happened to the roast beef? B: The dog is looking very happy. • In the above exchange, A will likely derive the implicature "the dog ate the roast beef" from B’s statement. This is due to A’s belief that B is observing the conversational maxim of relation or relevance in the specific context of A’s question.
  • 28. 2.2. Conventional implicature • Conventional implicature is an implicature that is: • part of a lexical item’s or expression’s agreed meaning, rather than derived from principles of language use, and • not part of the conditions for the truth of the item or expression.
  • 29. 2.2. Conventional implicature • Example: • Joe is poor but happy • +> This sentence implies poverty and happiness are not compatible but in spite of this Joe is still happy. This sentence will always necessarily imply “Surprisingly Joe is happy in spite of being poor”.