4. Introduction
Following the head and extremities, the abdomen
is the third most commonly injured anatomic
region in children.
Abdominal trauma can be associated with
significant morbidity & may have a mortality rate
as high as 8.5%.
The abdomen is the most common site of initially
unrecognized fatal injury in traumatized children.
Children can lose up to 45% of their total blood
volume before showing any changes in blood
pressure.
5. Anatomical Considerations:
Solid Organs: proportionally larger & more anterior
Kidneys: larger, more mobile +/- foetal lobulations
Subcutaneous Fat: ↓
Abdominal Musculature: ↓
AP Diameter: ↓
Flexible Cartilaginous Ribcage
The intestine is not fully attached within the peritoneal
cavity (especially the sigmoid and right colon) more
vulnerable to injury due to sudden deceleration and/or
abdominal compression.
The bladder extends to the level of the umbilicus at birth
and therefore is more exposed to a direct impact to the
lower abdomen.
6. Key points……
Liver/spleen more anterior and less protected by
ribs/muscles
Kidney more mobile and less protected by ribs/muscles
Solid organ bleeding tends to stop because kids have
excellent vasoconstrictive response
Pitfall of hypotension: kids can lose 30-40% of circulating
blood volume and still maintain normal blood pressure so
don’t wait for hypotension to diagnose shock.
CRT>2-3 seconds; cool skin
Low urine output
Altered mental status
Elevated heart rate/narrowed pulse pressure
Lactate>3-4
7. Common injury patterns
Solid organ injury
Laceration to liver, spleen, or kidney
Injury to one of these three + hemodynamic instability:
considered indication for urgent laparotomy
Isolated solid organ injury in hemodynamically stable patient:
can often be managed nonoperatively.
Pelvic fractures:
Suggest major force applied to patient.
Usually MVA
Significant association with intraperitoneal and retroperitoneal
organs and vascular structures.
8. Physical Examination
Observation of external signs
Palpation for tenderness, distension or guarding
Swallowing of air pain & crying NGT decompression
UQ ecchymosis , tenderness, and associated rib fractures
suggest liver / splenic injuries
Mid-abdominal ecchymosis from a seat belt small bowel
injury
Localized suprapubic tenderness extraperitoneal
bladder rupture
Generalized abdominal distension intraperitoneal
bladder rupture.
9. Assessment
Inspection, auscultation, percussion, palpation
Inspection: abrasions, contusions, lacerations,
deformity
Auscultation: careful exam advised by ATLS.
(Controversial utility in trauma setting.)
Percussion: subtle signs of peritonitis; tympany in
gastric dilatation or free air; dullness with
hemoperitoneum
Palpation: elicit superficial, deep, or rebound
tenderness; involuntary muscle guarding
10. Physical Exam: Eponyms
Grey-Turner sign:
Bluish discoloration of lower flanks, lower back; associated with
retroperitoneal bleeding of pancreas, kidney, or pelvic fracture.
Cullen sign:
Bluish discoloration around umbilicus, indicates peritoneal
bleeding, often pancreatic hemorrhage.
Kehr sign:
L shoulder pain while supine; caused by diaphragmatic
irritation (splenic injury, free air, intra-abd bleeding)
Balance sign:
Dull percussion in LUQ. Sign of splenic injury; blood
accumulating in subcapsular or extracapsular spleen.
13. Radiographic Assessment
Radiology survey – Chest, abdomen, pelvis, cervical spine
CT – procedure of choice
If patient is unstable management
CT – most accurate to grade the extent of injury
Ultrasonography (US) is rapid, noninvasive, and relatively
inexpensive.
14. Plain X-Ray Chest & Abdomen
Pneumotharax, Haemothorax
Free air under diaphragm
Bowel loops in the chest
Elevation of the both /Single diaphragm
Lower Ribs # -Liver /Spleen Injury
Ground Glass Appearance –
Massive Hemoperitoneum
Obliteration of Psoas Shadow –Retroperitoneal
Bleeding
#vertebra
15. Focused Assessment with Sonography in
Trauma (FAST)
First used in 1996
Rapid , Accurate
Sensitivity 86- 99%
Can detect 100 mL of blood
Cost effective
Four different views- Pericardiac
Perihepatic
Perisplenic
Peripelvic space
Eliminates unnecessary CT scans
Helps in management plan
16. FAST: Accuracy
For identifying hemoperitoneum in blunt abdominal
trauma:
Sensitivity 76 - 90%
Specificity 95 - 100%
The larger the hemoperitoneum, the higher the
sensitivity.
So sensitivity increases for clinically significant
hemoperitoneum.
How much fluid can FAST detect?
250 cc total
100 cc in Morison’s pouch
17. FAST: Strengths and Limitations
Strengths
Rapid (~2 mins)
Portable
Inexpensive
Technically simple, easy
to train (studies show
competence can be
achieved after ~30
studies)
Can be performed serially
Useful for guiding triage
decisions in trauma
patients
Limitations
Does not typically identify
source of bleeding, or detect
injuries that do not cause
hemoperitoneum
Requires extensive training to
assess parenchyma reliably
Limited in detecting <250 cc
intraperitoneal fluid
Particularly poor at detecting
bowel and mesentery damage
(44% sensitivity)
Difficult to assess
retroperitoneum
Limited by habitus in obese
patients
18. USG
Advantage
Easy & Early to Diagnose
Noninvasive
No Radiation Exposure
Resuscitation/Emergency
room
Used in initial Evaluation
Low cost
Disadvantage
Examiner Dependent
Obesity
Gas interposition
Low Sensitivity for free fluid
less 500 mL
False –Negative
retroperitoneal & Hallow
viscus injury
19. CT
EAST level I recommendations (2001):
CT is recommended for evaluation of
hemodynamically stable patients with equivocal
findings on physical examination, associated
neurologic injury, or multiple extra-abdominal
injuries.
CT is the diagnostic modality of choice for
nonoperative management of solid visceral injuries.
20.
21. DPL - Diagnostic Peritoneal Lavage
Diagnostic peritoneal lavage is sensitive for the detection of
intra-abdominal injury that results in hemoperitoneum ,
but it is rarely performed in pediatric patients.
In one series, the cell count, amylase activity and
particulate matter in DPL specimen were able to identify
small bowel perforation with a sensitivity of 100%.
Difficult to perform – small abdomen
22.
23. Diagnostic Peritoneal Lavage
98% sensitive for intraperitoneal bleeding (ATLS)
Open or closed (Seldinger); usually infraumbilical .
Free aspiration of blood, GI contents, or bile in
hemodynamically abnormal pt: indication for
laparotomy
If gross blood (> 10 mL) or GI contents not aspirated,
perform lavage with 1000 mL warmed RL.
+ test: >100,000 RBC/mm3, >500 WBC/mm3, Gram
stain with bacteria.
Alters subsequent examination of patient
24. Diagnostic Laparoscopy
Diagnostic video-assisted laparoscopic evaluation – safe
and effective modality for evaluating the abdomen.
Diaphragmatic injuries – diagnosed & repaired
laparascopically
Alternative – thoracoscopy for thoracic & abdomen injury
in penetrating trauma.
25. Prehospital Care
The goal of prehospital is to deliver the pt to
hospital for definitive care as rapidly as possible.
‘Scoop and Run’
Maintain airway & start I V line
Care of spinal cord
Communicate to medical control
Rapid transport of patient to trauma centre
26. Initial Assessment and Resuscitation
Primary survey
Identification & treatment of life threatening
conditions
Airway , with cervical spine precautions
Breathing
Circulation
Disability
Exposure
36. Solid Organ Injuries
Grading of injured solid organs such as Spleen, Liver &
Kidneys are on the basis of subcapsular hematoma
,capsular tear, parenchymal lacerations & avulsion of
vascular pedicle
Bleeds significantly & cause rapid blood loss
Difficult to identify injury by physical exam
Repeated assessment is required to make the diagnosis
Slowly oozing blood into peritoneal cavity
37.
38. Splenic Injury
Most common intra- abdominal organ to injured (40-55%)
20% of splenic injuries due to left lower rib fractures
Commonly arterial hemorrhage
Conservative management :
-Hemodynamic stability
-Preserved vasculature
- Absence of other indication of Laprotomy
-Grade 1to 3 (Subcapsular Hematoma ,Laceration <3 cm)
Monitoring
Serial abdo. Examinations & Haematocrit are essential
Success rate of conservative m/m is >80%
39.
40. Splenic Injuries
Capsular tears (I)- Compression & topical haemostatic agent
Deep Laceration (II)- Horizontal mattress suture
or Splenorrhaphy
Major Laceration not involving hilum (IV)-
Partial Splenectomy
Hillar injury (V)–Total Splenectomy
Grade IV-V: almost invariably require operative intervention
Success rate of Splenic salvage procedure is 40-60%
41. Liver Injury
Second most commonly injured organ
Highest mortality
Clinical course of patient determines treatment
Late complications – bile peritonitis, abscess formation,
hemorrhage
Operative treatment – hepatic vein trauma
Damage control surgery – packing, stabilization, followed
by repeat laparatomy
Embolization of hepatic vessels – ongoing blood loss
42. Lacerations (most common in posterior segment of right
lobe at ligament attachment), hematoma, vascular injury
Hemoperitoneum 2/3 of the time
Grading systems not useful for operative decision-making.
Management based on patient’s clinical status not CT.
CT helps with level of care, duration of stay, duration of
activity restriction at discharge
1-3% operative management
Active extravasation (contrast blush on CT) NOT an
absolute indication
43. Renal Injury
Clinically not suspected & frequently overlooked
Mechanism: Blunt , Penetrating
# lower ribs or spinous process,
Crush abdominal
Pelvic injury
Direct blow to flank or back
Fall
MVA
44. Renal Injury
Diagnosis
1.History ,Clinical examination
2. Presentation :Shock, hematuria & pain
3. Urine: gross or microscopic hematuria
5.X-ray KUB, IVP
6.USG
7.CT Scan abdomen
8.Radionuclide Scan
The degree of hematuria may not predict the severity of renal
injury
45. Kidney Injury…
Rarely isolated injury
Mechanism:
Direct blow: parenchymal contusion or hematoma; see
delayed contrast enhancement on CT; mostly NOM
Rapid deceleration: collecting system injury; mostly NOM
if leakage confined to peri-renal space on delayed (10-15
min later) images
Renal artery injury: urgent operative repair because loss of
kidney function occurs within 2 hours.
46. Renal Injury
.
Classification of Injury
Grade I : Contusion or Subcapsular Hematoma
Grade II: Non Expanding Hematoma, <1 cm deep ,no
extravasation
Grade III: Laceration >1cm with urinary Extravasation
Grade IV: Parenchymal Laceration deep to CM Junction
Grade V: Renovascular injury
47.
48. Management of Renal Injury
About 85% of blunt renal trauma can be managed
conservatively
Renal Contusion : Conservatively
Renal exploration :
Indication
Deep cortico-medullary Laceration with extravasation
Large perinephric Hematoma
Renovascular injury
Uncontrolled bleeding
Before Nephrectomy ,Contralateral Kidney should be
assessed
49. Bladder Injury
Commonly in BTA
70% of bladder Injury are associated with pelvic fracture .
Hematuria
Type
1.Extraperitoneal Rupture-by bony fragment
2. Intraperitoneal Rupture- at dome
when blow in distended bladder
Diagnosis -1. Clinical 2. Cystography
T/t 1. Intraperitoneal –trans-peritoneal - closure +SPC
2:Extraperitoneal Rupture : Foley’s catheter -10 -14 days
50. Pancreatic Injury
Uncommon injury
Mechanism: compression against vertebra-->body injury; blow to flank-->tail
injury
CT: CT not great for evaluation; peri-pancreatic fluid, stranding, pancreatic
enlargement
Management controversial: small studies with increased rate of complications
with NOM
Mattix, J Pediatr Surg 2007: 26% failure rate of NOM; more pseudocyst formation if
NOM with pancreatic ductal injury
Higher failure risk:
Multiple organ injury
Greater injury severity
Pancreatic injury-18% failure rate
51. Bowel Injury
Jejunum most commonly injured
CT findings: unexplained free fluid, wall thickening,
dilated bowel loops, mesenteric fat stranding; free air or
oral contrast extravasation (if given) infrequently seen with
rupture
Partial thickness tearhematoma
Treatment: NOM, bowel rest; SBO can occur if large
hematoma
Full thickness tear/rupture repair
Unexplained free fluid with normal PE: FF not as
predictive of bowel injury in kids as in adults; consider
serial exams