electrical consumtion energy in india

1. ELECTRICITY SECTOR IN INDIA
The electricity sector in India had an installed capacity of 207.85 Gigawatt (GW) as of September 2012,
the world's fifth largest.
[1]
Captive power plants generate an additional 31.5 GW. Thermal power plants constitute 66% of the
installed capacity, hydroelectric about 19% and rest being a combination of wind, small hydro, biomass,
waste-to-electricity, and nuclear. India generated 855 BU (855 000 MU i.e. 855 TWh
[2]
) electricity during 2011-12 fiscal.
In terms of fuel, coal-fired plants account for 56% of India's installed electricity capacity, compared to
South Africa's 92%; China's 77%; and Australia's 76%. After coal, renewal hydropower accounts for 19%,
renewable energy for 12% and natural gas for about 9%.[3][4]
In December 2011, over 300 million Indian citizens had no access to electricity. Over one third of India's
rural population lacked electricity, as did 6% of the urban population. Of those who did have access to
electricity in India, the supply was intermittent and unreliable. In 2010, blackouts and power shedding
interrupted irrigation and manufacturing across the country.[5][6]
The per capita average annual domestic electricity consumption in India in 2009 was 96 kWh in rural
areas and 288 kWh in urban areas for those with access to electricity, in contrast to the worldwide per
capita annual average of 2600 kWh and 6200 kWh in the European Union.
[7]
India's total domestic, agricultural and industrial per capita energy consumption estimate vary
depending on the source. Two sources place it between 400 to 700kWh in 2008–2009.[8][9] As of January
2012, one report found the per capita total consumption in India to be 778 kWh.[5]
India currently suffers from a major shortage of electricity generation capacity, even though it is the
world's fourth largest energy consumer after United States, China and Russia
.[10] The International Energy Agency estimates India needs an investment of at least $135 billion to
provide universal access of electricity to its population.
The International Energy Agency estimates India will add between 600 GW to 1200 GW of additional
new power generation capacity before 2050.
[6]
This added new capacity is equivalent to the 740 GW of total power generation capacity of European
Union (EU-27) in 2005. The technologies and fuel sources India adopts, as it adds this electricity
generation capacity, may make significant impact to global resource usage and environmental issues

2. .[11]India's electricity sector is amongst the world's most active players in renewable energy utilization,
especially wind energy.[12] As of December 2011, India had an installed capacity of about 22.4 GW of
renewal technologies-based electricity, exceeding the total installed electricity capacity in Austria by all
technologies.
India's network losses exceeded 32% in 2010 including non-technical losses, compared to world average
of less than 15%. Both technical and non-technical factors contribute to these losses, but quantifying
their proportions is difficult. But the Government pegs the national T&D losses at around 24% for the
year 2011 & has set a target of reducing it to 17.1% by 2017 & to 14.1% by 2022. Some experts estimate
that technical losses are about 15% to 20%, A high proportion of non‐technical losses are caused by
illegal tapping of lines, but faulty electric meters that underestimate actual consumption also
contribute to reduced payment collection. A case study in Kerala estimated that replacing faulty meters
could reduce distribution losses from 34% to 29%.[6]
Key implementation challenges for India's electricity sector include new project management and
execution, ensuring availability of fuel quantities and qualities, lack of initiative to develop large coal
and natural gas resources present in India, land acquisition, environmental clearances at state and
central government level, and training of skilled manpower to prevent talent shortages for operating
latest technology plants.[8]

3. CONTENTS
1 History
2 Demand
3 Electricity Consumption
4 Generation
o 4.1 Thermal power
o 4.2 Hydro power
o 4.3 Nuclear power
5 Other renewable energy
o 5.1 Solar power
o 5.2 Wind power
o 5.3 Biomass power
o 5.4 Geothermal energy
o 5.5 Tidal wave energy
6 Problems with India's power sector
7 Resource potential in electricity sector
8 Rural electrification
9 Human resource development
10 Trading
11 Regulation and administration
12 See also
13 References
14 External links

4. HISTORY
The first demonstration of electric light in Calcutta was conducted on 24 July 1879 by P W Fleury&Co.On
January 7, 1897, Kilburn & Co secured the Calcutta electric lighting licence as agents of the Indian
Electric Co, which was registered in London on January 15, 1897.
A month later, the company was renamed the Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation. The control of the
company was transferred from London to Calcutta only in 1970.
Enthused by the success of electricity in Calcutta, power was thereafter introduced in Bombay.[13]
Mumbai saw electric lighting demonstration for the first time in 1882 at Crawford Market, and Bombay
Electric Supply & Tramways Company (B.E.S.T.) set up a generating station in 1905 to provide electricity
for the tramway.[14]
The first hydroelectric installation in India was installed near a tea estate at Sidrapong for the Darjeeling
Municipality in 1897.[15]
The first electric train ran between Bombay's Victoria Terminus and Kurla along the Harbour Line, in
1925.[16]
In 1931, electrification of the meter gauge track between Madras Beach and Tambaram was started.[17]
DEMAND
Demand drivers

5. Satellite pictures of India show thick haze and black carbon smoke above India and other Asian
countries. This problem is particularly severe along the Ganga Basin in northern India. Major
sources of particulate matter and aerosols are believed to be smoke from biomass burning in
rural parts of India, and air pollution from large cities in northern India.
"Expanding access to energy means including 2.4 billion people: 1.4 billion that still has no
access to electricity (87% of whom live in the rural areas) and 1 billion that only has access
to unreliable electricity networks. We need smart and practical approaches because energy,
as a driver of development, plays a central role in both fighting poverty and addressing climate
change. The implications are enormous: families forego entrepreneurial endeavors, children
cannot study after dark, health clinics do not function properly, and women are burdened with
time consuming chores such as pounding grain or hauling water, leaving them with less time to
engage in income generating activities. Further, it is estimated that kitchen smoke leads to
around 1.5 million premature deaths every year, more than the number of deaths from malaria
each year. After gaining access to energy, households generate more income, are more
productive and are less hungry, further multiplying the Millenium Development Goal's progress."
— RebecaGrynspan, UNDP Associate Administrator and Under Secretary General, Bloomberg
New Energy Summit, April 7, 2011[18]
Of the 1.4 billion people of the world who have no access to electricity in the world, India
accounts for over 300 million.
Some 800 million Indians use traditional fuels – fuelwood, agricultural waste and biomass cakes
– for cooking and general heating needs. These traditional fuels are burnt in cook stoves, known
as chulah or chulha in some parts of India.
[19][20]
Traditional fuel is inefficient source of energy, its burning releases high levels of smoke,
PM10 particulate matter, NOX, SOX, PAHs, polyaromatics, formaldehyde, carbon monoxide
and other air pollutants.[21][22][23][24]
Some reports, including one by the World Health Organization, claim 300,000 to 400,000 people
in India die of indoor air pollution and carbon monoxide poisoning every year because of
biomass burning and use of chullahs.[25]
Traditional fuel burning in conventional cook stoves releases unnecessarily large amounts of
pollutants, between 5 to 15 times higher than industrial combustion of coal, thereby affecting
outdoor air quality, haze and smog, chronic health problems, damage to forests, ecosystems
and global climate.

6. Burning of biomass and firewood will not stop, these reports claim, unless electricity or clean
burning fuel and combustion technologies become reliably available and widely adopted in rural
and urban India.
The growth of electricity sector in India may help find a sustainable alternative to traditional fuel
burning.
In addition to air pollution problems, a 2007 study finds that discharge of untreated sewage is
single most important cause for pollution of surface and ground water in India.
There is a large gap between generation and treatment of domestic wastewater in India. The
problem is not only that India lacks sufficient treatment capacity but also that the sewage
treatment plants that exist do not operate and are not maintained.
Majority of the government-owned sewage treatment plants remain closed most of the time in
part because of the lack of reliable electricity supply to operate the plants.
The wastewater generated in these areas normally percolates in the soil or evaporates. The
uncollected wastes accumulate in the urban areas cause unhygienic conditions, release heavy
metals and pollutants that leaches to surface and groundwater.
[26][27]
Almost all rivers, lakes and water bodies are severely polluted in India. Water pollution
also adversely impacts river, wetland and ocean life.
Reliable generation and supply of electricity is essential for addressing India's water pollution
and associated environmental issues.
Other drivers for India's electricity sector are its rapidly growing economy, rising exports,
improving infrastructure and increasing household incomes.
Demand trends
Electricity transmission grid in eastern India.
As in previous years, during the year 2010–11, demand for electricity in India far outstripped
availability, both in terms of base load energy and peak availability.

7. Base load requirement was 861,591 (MU[2]) against availability of 788,355 MU, a 8.5% deficit.
During peak loads, the demand was for 122 GW against availability of 110 GW, a 9.8%
shortfall.[28]
In a May 2011 report, India's Central Electricity Authority anticipated, for 2011–12 year, a base
load energy deficit and peaking shortage to be 10.3% and 12.9% respectively.
The peaking shortage would prevail in all regions of the country, varying from 5.9% in the
North-Eastern region to 14.5% in the Southern Region. India also expects all regions to face
energy shortage varying from 0.3% in the North-Eastern region to 11.0% in the Western region.
India's Central Electricity Authority expects a surplus output in some of the states of Northern
India, those with predominantly hydropower capacity, but only during the monsoon months.
In these states, shortage conditions would prevail during winter season.[28]
According to this report, the five states with largest power demand and availability, as of May
2011, were Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh andGujarat.
In late 2011 newspaper articles, Gujarat was declared a power surplus state, with about 2–3
GW more power available than its internal demand.
The state was expecting more capacity to become available.
It was expecting to find customers, sell excess capacity to meet power demand in other states
of India, thereby generate revenues for the state.[29][30]
Despite an ambitious rural electrification program,[31] some 400 million Indians lose electricity
access during blackouts.[32]
While 80% of Indian villages have at least an electricity line, just 52.5% of rural households
have access to electricity.
In urban areas, the access to electricity is 93.1% in 2008. The overall electrification rate in India
is 64.5% while 35.5% of the population still live without access to electricity.[33]
According to a sample of 97,882 households in 2002, electricity was the main source of lighting
for 53% of rural households compared to 36% in 1993.[34]
The 17th electric power survey of India report claims:[35]
Over 2010–11, India's industrial demand accounted for 35% of electrical power requirement,
domestic household use accounted for 28%, agriculture 21%, commercial 9%, public
lighting and other miscellaneous applications accounted for the rest.

8. The electrical energy demand for 2016–17 is expected to be at least 1392 Tera Watt Hours,
with a peak electric demand of 218 GW.
The electrical energy demand for 2021–22 is expected to be at least 1915 Tera Watt Hours,
with a peak electric demand of 298 GW.
If current average transmission and distribution average losses remain same (32%), India needs
to add about 135 GW of power generation capacity, before 2017, to satisfy the projected
demand after losses.
McKinsey claims[36] that India's demand for electricity may cross 300 GW, earlier than most
estimates. To explain their estimates, they point to four reasons:
India's manufacturing sector is likely to grow faster than in the past
Domestic demand will increase more rapidly as the quality of life for more Indians improve
About 125,000 villages are likely to get connected to India's electricity grid
Currently blackouts and load shedding artificially suppresses demand; this demand will be
sought as revenue potential by power distribution companies
A demand of 300GW will require about 400 GW of installed capacity, McKinsey notes. The extra
capacity is necessary to account for plant availability, infrastructure maintenance, spinning
reserve and losses.
In 2010, electricity losses in India during transmission and distribution were about 24%, while
losses because of consumer theft or billing deficiencies added another 10–15%.[37]
According to two studies published in 2004, theft of electricity in India, amounted to a nationwide
loss of $4.5 billion.
[38][39]
This led several states of India to enact and implement regulatory, and institutional
framework; develop a new industry and market structure; and privatize distribution.
The state of Andhra Pradesh, for example, enacted an electricity reform law; unbundled the
utility into one generation, one transmission, and four distribution and supply companies; and
established an independent regulatory commission responsible for licensing, setting tariffs, and
promoting efficiency and competition.
Some state governments amended the Indian Electricity Act of 1910 to make electricity theft a
cognizable offense and impose stringent penalties.

9. A separate law, unprecedented in India, provided for mandatory imprisonment and penalties for
offenders, allowed constitution of special courts and tribunals for speedy trial, and recognized
collusion by utility staff as a criminal offense.
The state government made advance preparations and constituted special courts and appellate
tribunals as soon as the new law came into force. High quality metering and enhanced audit
information flow was implemented. Such campaigns have made a big difference in the Indian
utilities‘ bottom line.
Monthly billing has increased substantially, and the collection rate reached more than 98%.
Transmission and distribution losses were reduced by 8%.
Power cuts are common throughout India and the consequent failure to satisfy the demand for
electricity has adversely effected India's economic growth.[40][41]
ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION
The Per capita Consumption(kWh) in 2009-10 was as follows:
STATE PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION(KWH)
GOA 2004.77
PUDUCHERRY 1864.5
PUNJAB 1663.01
GUJARAT 1558.58
HARYANA 1491.37
DELHI 1447.72
CHANDIGARH 1238.51

10. STATE PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION(KWH)
TAMIL NADU 1210.81
HIMACHAL PRADESH 1144.94
MAHARASHTRA 1054.1
ANDHRA PRADESH 1013.74
JAMMU & KASHMIR 968.47
UTTARAKHAND 930.41
KARNATAKA 873.05
SIKKIM 845.4
ORISSA 837.55
RAJASTHAN 811.12
JHARKHAND 750.46
MADHYA PRADESH 618.1
MEGHALAYA 613.36

11. STATE PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION(KWH)
KERALA 536.78
WEST BENGAL 515.08
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 506.13
ARUNACHAL PRADESH 503.27
MIZORAM 429.31
LAKSHADWEEP 428.81
UTTAR PRADESH 386.93
NAGALAND 242.39
TRIPURA 223.78
ASSAM 209.2
MANIPUR 207.15
BIHAR 117.48
This information was given by the Minister of State for Power Shri K.C.Venugopalina, written reply to a
[42
question in LokSabha on 18-05-2012

12. GENERATION
Tehri Hydroelectric Power station's lake in Uttarakhand. Tehri is world's 7th tallest dam.[43] With a
capacity of 2.4 GW, it is India's largest hydroelectric power generation installation.
Power development in India was first started in 1897 in Darjeeling, followed by commissioning
of a hydropower station at Sivasamudram in Karnataka during 1902.
India's electricity generation capacity additions from 1950 to 1985 were very low when
compared to developed nations. Since 1990, India has been one of the fastest growing markets
for new electricity generation capacity.
The country's annual electricity generation capacity has increased in last 20 years by about 120
GW, from about 66 GW in 1991[44] to over 100 GW in 2001,[45] to over 185 GW in 2011.
[46]
India's Power Finance Corporation Limited projects that current and approved electricity
capacity addition projects in India are expected to add about 100 GW of installed capacity
between 2012 and 2017.
This growth makes India one the fastest growing markets for electricity infrastructure
equipment.
[47][48]
India's installed capacity growth rates are still less than those achieved by China, and
short of capacity needed to ensure universal availability of electricity throughout India by 2017.
State-owned and privately owned companies are significant players in India's electricity sector,
with the private sector growing at a faster rate.
India's central government and state governments jointly regulate electricity sector in India.

13. As of August 2011, the states and union territories of India with power surplus were Himachal
Pradesh, Sikkim, Tripura, Gujarat,Delhi and Dadra and Nagar Haveli.[28][29]
Major economic and social drivers for India's push for electricity generation include India's goal
to provide universal access, the need to replace current highly polluting energy sources in use
in India with cleaner energy sources, a rapidly growing economy, increasing household
incomes, limited domestic reserves offossil fuels and the adverse impact on the environment of
rapid development in urban and regional areas.[49]
The table below presents the electricity generation capacity, as well as availability to India's end
user and their demand.
The difference between installed capacity and availability is the transmission, distribution and
consumer losses.
The gap between availability and demand is the shortage India is suffering. This shortage in
supply ignores the effects of waiting list of users in rural, urban and industrial customers; it also
ignores the demand gap from India's unreliable electricity supply.
Electricity sector capacity and availability in India (excludes effect of blackouts / power-
shedding)
Item Value Date reported Reference
[1][50]
Total installed capacity (GW) 201.64 April 2012
[46]
Available base load supply (MU) 837374 May 2011
[46]
Available peak load supply (GW) 118.7 May 2011
[46]
Demand base load (MU) 933741 May 2011
[46]
Demand peak load (GW) 136.2 May 2011
According to India's Ministry of Power, about 14.1 GW of new thermal power plants under
construction are expected to be put in use by December 2012, so are 2.1 GW capacity

14. hydropower plants and a 1 GW capacity nuclear power plant.[46] India's installed generation
capacity should top 200 GW in 2012.
In 2010, the five largest power companies in India, by installed capacity, in decreasing order,
were the state-owned NTPC, state-owned NHPC, followed by three privately owned companies:
Tata Power, Reliance Power and Adani Power.
In India's effort to add electricity generation capacity over 2009–2011, both central government
and state government owned power companies have repeatedly failed to add the capacity
targets because of issues with procurement of equipment and poor project management.
Private companies have delivered better results.[51]
[edit]Thermal power
A super thermal power plant in Rajasthan

15. A thermal power plant in Maharashtra
Thermal power plants convert energy rich fuel into electricity and heat. Possible fuels include
coal, natural gas, petroleum products, agricultural waste and domestic trash / waste.
Other sources of fuel include landfill gas and biogases.
In some plants, renewal fuels such as biogas are co-fired with coal.
Coal and lignite accounted for about 57% of India's installed capacity. However, since wind
energy depends on wind speed, and hydropower energy on water levels, thermal power plants
account for over 65% of India's generated electricity.
India's electricity sector consumes about 80% of the coal produced in the country.
India expects that its projected rapid growth in electricity generation over the next couple of
decades is expected to be largely met by thermal power plants.
Fuel constraints
A large part of Indian coal reserve is similar to Gondwana coal. It is of low calorific value and
high ash content. The iron content is low in India's coal, and toxic trace element concentrations
are negligible. The natural fuel value of Indian coal is poor. On average, the Indian power plants
using India's coal supply consume about 0.7 kg of coal to generate a kWh, whereas United
States thermal power plants consume about 0.45 kg of coal per kWh. This is because of the
difference in the quality of the coal, as measured by the Gross Calorific Value (GCV). On
average, Indian coal has a GCV of about 4500 Kcal/kg, whereas the quality elsewhere in the
world is much better; for example, in Australia, the GCV is 6500 Kcal/kg approximately.[52]
The high ash content in India's coal affects the thermal power plant's potential emissions.
Therefore, India's Ministry of Environment & Forests has mandated the use of beneficiated
coals whose ash content has been reduced to 34% (or lower) in power plants in urban,
ecologically sensitive and other critically polluted areas, and ecologically sensitive areas. Coal
benefaction industry has rapidly grown in India, with current capacity topping 90 MT.
Thermal power plants can deploy a wide range of technologies. Some of the major technologies
include:
Steam cycle facilities (most commonly used for large utilities);
Gas turbines (commonly used for moderate sized peaking facilities);

16. Cogeneration and combined cycle facility (the combination of gas turbines or internal
combustion engines with heat recovery systems); and
Internal combustion engines (commonly used for small remote sites or stand-by power
generation).
India has an extensive review process, one that includes environment impact assessment, prior
to a thermal power plant being approved for construction and commissioning. The Ministry of
Environment and Forests has published a technical guidance manual to help project proposers
and to prevent environmental pollution in India from thermal power plants.[53]
Installed thermal power capacity
The installed capacity of Thermal Power in India, as of June 30, 2011, was 115649.48 MW
which is 65.34%[54] of total installed capacity.
Current installed base of Coal Based Thermal Power is 96,743.38 MW which comes to
54.66% of total installed base.
Current installed base of Gas Based Thermal Power is 17,706.35 MW which is 10.00% of
total installed capacity.
Current installed base of Oil Based Thermal Power is 1,199.75 MW which is 0.67% of total
installed capacity.
The state of Maharashtra is the largest producer of thermal power in the country.
Hydro power
Main article: Hydroelectric power in India
Indira Sagar Dam partially completed in 2008

17. NagarjunaSagar Dam and hydroelectric power plant on the Krishna River. It is the world's
largest masonry dam, with an installed capacity of 800MW. The dam also irrigates about 1.4
million acres of previously drought-prone land.
In this system of power generation, the potential of the water falling under gravitational force is
utilized to rotate a turbine which again is coupled to a Generator, leading to generation of
electricity. India is one of the pioneering countries in establishing hydro-electric power plants.
The power plants at Darjeeling and Shimsha (Shivanasamudra) were established in 1898 and
1902 respectively and are among the first in Asia.
India is endowed with economically exploitable and viable hydro potential assessed to be about
84,000 MW at 60% load factor. In addition, 6,780 MW in terms of installed capacity from Small,
Mini, and Micro Hydel schemes have been assessed. Also, 56 sites for pumped storage
schemes with an aggregate installed capacity of 94,000 MW have been identified. It is the most
widely used form of renewable energy. India is blessed with immense amount of hydro-electric
potential and ranks 5th in terms of exploitable hydro-potential on global scenario.
The present installed capacity as of 30 June 2011 is approximately 37,367.4 MW which is
21.53% of total electricity generation in India.[55] The public sector has a predominant share of
97% in this sector.[56] National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC), Northeast Electric
Power Company (NEEPCO), Satlujjalvidyutnigam (SJVNL), Tehri Hydro Development
Corporation, NTPC-Hydro are a few public sector companies engaged in development of
hydroelectric power in India.
Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB), illustrative state-owned enterprise in north India, has
an installed capacity of 2.9 GW and generates 12000-14000 MU[2] per year. The cost of
generation of energy after four decades of operation is about 20 paise/kWh.[citation needed] BBMB is
a major source of peaking power and black start to the northern grid in India. Large reservoirs
provide operational flexibility. BBMB reservoirs annually supply water for irrigation to 125 lac

18. (12.5 million) acres of agricultural land of partner states, enabling northern India in its green
revolution.
[edit]Nuclear power
Main article: Nuclear power in India
Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant under construction in 2009. It was 96% complete as of March
2011, with first phase expected to be in use in 2012. With initial installed capacity of 2 GW, this
plant will be expanded to 6.8 GW capacity.
As of 2011, India had 4.8 GW of installed electricity generation capacity using nuclear fuels.
India's Nuclear plants generated 32455 million units or 3.75% of total electricity produced in
India.[57]
India's nuclear power plant development began in 1964.
India signed an agreement with General Electric of the United States for the construction and
commissioning of two boiling water reactors at Tarapur.
In 1967, this effort was placed under India's Department of Atomic Energy. In 1971, India set up
its first pressurised heavy water reactors with Canadian collaboration in Rajasthan. In 1987,
India created Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited to commercialize nuclear power.
Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited is a public sector enterprise, wholly owned by the
Government of India, under the administrative control of its Department of Atomic Energy.
Its objective is to implement and operate nuclear power stations for India's electricity sector.
The state-owned company has ambitious plans to establish 63 GW generation capacity by
2032, as a safe, environmentally benign and economically viable source of electrical energy to
meet the increasing electricity needs of India.[58]
India's nuclear power generation effort satisfies many safeguards and oversights, such as
getting ISO-14001 accreditation for environment management system and peer review by World
Association of Nuclear Operators including a pre-start up peer review.

19. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited admits, in its annual report for 2011, that its biggest
challenge is to address the public and policy maker perceptions about the safety of nuclear
power, particularly after the Fukushima incident in Japan.[57]
In 2011, India had 18 pressurized heavy water reactors in operation, with another four projects
of 2.8 GW capacity launched. The country plans to implement fast breeder reactors, using
plutonium based fuel. Plutonium is obtained by reprocessing spent fuel of first stage reactors.
India successfully launched its first prototype fast breeder reactor of 500 MW capacity in Tamil
Nadu, and now operates two such reactors.
India has nuclear power plants operating in the following states: Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. These reactors have an installed
electricity generation capacity between 100 to 540 MW each. New reactors with installed
capacity of 1000 MW per reactor are expected to be in use by 2012.
In 2011, The Wall Street Journal reported the discovery of uranium in a new mine in India, the
country's largest ever. The estimated reserves of 64,000 tonnes, could be as large as 150,000
tonnes (making the mine one of the world's largest). The new mine is expected to provide India
with a fuel that it currently imports. Nuclear fuel supply constraints had limited India's ability to
grow its nuclear power generation capacity. The newly discovered ore, unlike those in Australia,
is of slightly lower grade. This mine is expected to be in operation in 2012.[59]
India's share of nuclear power plant generation capacity is just 1.2% of worldwide nuclear power
production capacity, making it the 15th largest nuclear power producer. Nuclear power provided
3% of the country's total electricity generation in 2011.
India aims to supply 9% of it electricity needs with nuclear power by 2032.[57]
India's largest nuclear power plant project under implementation is at Jaitapur, Maharashtra in
partnership with Areva, France.
[edit]Other renewable energy
Main article: Renewable energy in India
Renewable energy in India is a sector that is still in its infancy.
As of December 2011, India had an installed capacity of about 22.4 GW of renewal
technologies-based electricity, about 12% of its total.[60] For context, the total installed capacity
for electricity in Switzerland was about 18 GW in 2009. The table below provides the capacity
breakdown by various technologies.

20. Renewal energy installed capacity in India (as of June 30, 2012)
Type[61] Technology Installed capacity (in MW)
Grid connected power
Wind 17644
Small hydro 3411
Biomass 1182
Bagasse Cogeneration 2046
Waste-to-Energy (WtE) 93
Solar 1030
Off-grid, captive power
Waste to Energy-Urban 105
Biomass non-bagasse cogen 391
Biomass Gasifiers - Rural 16

21. Biomass Gasifiers - Industrial 136
SPV Systems (>1 kW) 85
Aerogen/Hybrids 1.74
As of August 2011, India had deployed renewal energy to provide electricity in 8846 remote
villages, installed 4.4 million family biogas plants, 1800 microhydel units and 4.7 million square
meters of solar water heating capacity. India anticipates to add another 3.6 GW of renewal
energy installed capacity by December 2012.[61]
India plans to add about 30 GW of installed electricity generation capacity based on renewal
energy technologies, by 2017.[60]
Renewable energy projects in India are regulated and championed by the central
government's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy.
Solar power
Main article: Solar power in India
Solar resource map for India.
The western states of the country are naturally gifted with high solar incidence.

22. India is bestowed with solar irradiation ranging from 4 to 7 kWh/square meter/day across the
country, with western and southern regions having higher insolation.[62]
India is endowed with rich solar energy resource.
India receives the highest global solar radiation on a horizontal surface.[citation needed]
With its growing electricity demand, India has initiated steps to develop its large potential for
solar energy based power generation.
In November 2009, the Government of India launched its Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar
Mission under the National Action Plan on Climate Change.
Under this central government initiative, India plans to generate 1 GW of power by 2013 and up
to 20 GW grid-based solar power, 2 GW of off-grid solar power and cover 20 million square
metres with solar energy collectors by 2020
.[63] India plans utility scale solar power generation plants through solar parks with dedicated
infrastructure by state governments, among others, the governments of Gujarat and
Rajasthan.[62]
The Government of Gujarat taking advantage of the national initiative and high solar irradiation
in the state, launched the Solar Power Policy in 2009 and proposes to establish a number of
large-scale solar parks starting with the Charanka solar park in Patan district in the sparsely
populated northern part of the state.
The development of solar parks will streamline the project development timeline by letting
government agencies undertake land acquisition and necessary permits, and provide dedicated
common infrastructure for setting up solar power generation plants largely in the private sector.
This approach will facilitate the accelerated installation of private sector solar power generation
capacity reducing costs by addressing issues faced by stand alone projects.
Common infrastructure for the solar park include site preparation and leveling, power
evacuation, availability of water, access roads, security and services. In parallel with the central
government's initiative, the Gujarat Electricity Regulatory Commission has announced feed-in-
tariff to mainstream solar power generation which will be applied for solar power generation
plants in the solar park.
Gujarat Power Corporation Limited is the responsible agency for developing the solar park of
500 megawatts and will lease the lands to the project developers to generate solar power.

23. Gujarat Energy Transmission Corporation Limited will develop the transmission evacuation
from the identified interconnection points with the solar developer. This project is being
supported, in part, by the Asian Development Bank.[62]
The first Indian solar thermal power project (2X50MW) is in progress in Phalodi (Rajasthan),
and is constructed by CORPORATE ISPAT ALLOY LTD.[citation needed]
The Indian Solar Loan Programme, supported by the United Nations Environment
Programme has won the prestigious Energy Globe World award for Sustainability for helping to
establish a consumer financing program for solar home power systems.
Over the span of three years more than 16,000 solar home systems have been financed
through 2,000 bank branches, particularly in rural areas of South India where the electricity
grid does not yet extend. Launched in 2003, the Indian Solar Loan Programme was a four-year
partnership between UNEP, the UNEP Risoe Centre, and two of India's largest banks, the
Canara Bank and Syndicate Bank.[64][65]
Land acquisition is a challenge to solar farm projects in India. Some state governments are
exploring means to address land availability through innovation; for example, by exploring
means to deploy solar capacity above their extensive irrigation canal projects, thereby
harvesting solar energy while reducing the loss of irrigation water by solar evaporation.
Wind power
Main article: Wind power in India
Wind farm in Rajasthan.

24. Wind turbines midst India's agricultural farms.
Wind farms midst paddy fields in India.
India has the fifth largest installed wind power capacity in the world.[66] In 2010, wind power
accounted for 6% of India's total installed power capacity, and 1.6% of the country's power
output.
The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s by Tamil Nadu Electric Board
near Tuticorin, and has significantly increased in the last few years. Suzlon is the leading Indian
company in wind power, with an installed generation capacity of 6.2 GW in India. Vestas is
another major company active in India's wind energy initiative.[67]

25. As December 2011, the installed capacity of wind power in India was 15.9 GW, spread across
many states of India.[60][66] The largest wind power generating state was Tamil Nadu accounting
for 30% of installed capacity, followed in decreasing order by Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka,
andRajasthan.[68] It is estimated that 6 GW of additional wind power capacity will be installed in
India by 2012.[69] In Tamil Nadu, wind power is mostly harvested in the southern districts such
as Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli and Tuticorin.
The state of Gujarat is estimated to have the maximum gross wind power potential in India, with
a potential of 10.6 GW.[67]
[edit]Biomass power
In this system biomass, bagasse, forestry and agro residue & agricultural wastes are used as
fuel to produce electricity.[70]
BIOMASS GASIFIER
India has been promoting biomass gasifier technologies in its rural areas, to utilize surplus
biomass resources such as rice husk, crop stalks, small wood chips, other agro-residues. The
goal was to produce electricity for villages with power plants of up to 2 MW capacities. During
2011, India installed 25 rice husk based gasifier systems for distributed power generation in 70
remote villages of Bihar. The Largest Biomass based power plant in India is at SIrohi, Rajasthan
having the capacity of 20 MW.i.e. Sambhav Energy Limited. In addition, gasifier systems are
being installed at 60 rice mills in India. During the year, biomass gasifier projects of 1.20 MW in
Gujarat and 0.5 MW in Tamil Nadu were successfully installed.[60]
Biogas
This pilot program aims to install small scale biogas plants for meeting the cooking energy
needs in rural areas of India. During 2011, some 45000 small scale biogas plants were installed.
Cumulatively, India has installed 4.44 million small scale biogas plants.
In 2011, India started a new initiative with the aim to demonstrate medium size mixed feed
biogas-fertilizer pilot plants. This technology aims for generation, purification/enrichment,
bottling and piped distribution of biogas. India approved 21 of these projects with aggregate
capacity of 37016 cubic meter per day, of which 2 projects have been successfully
commissioned by December 2011.[60]
India has additionally commissioned 158 projects under its Biogas based Distributed/Grid Power
Generation programme, with a total installed capacity of about 2 MW.
India is rich in biomass and has a potential of 16,881MW (agro-residues and plantations),
5000MW (bagasse cogeneration) and 2700MW (energy recovery from waste). Biomass power

26. generation in India is an industry that attracts investments of over INR 600 crores every year,
generating more than 5000 million units of electricity and yearly employment of more than 10
million man-days in the rural areas.[citation needed]
As of 2010, India burnt over 200 million tonnes of coal replacement worth of traditional biomass
fuel every year to meet its energy need for cooking and other domestic use. This traditional
biomass fuel – fuelwood, crop waste and animal dung – is a potential raw material for the
application of biomass technologies for the recovery of cleaner fuel, fertilizers and electricity
with significantly lower pollution.
Biomass available in India can and has been playing an important role as fuel for sugar mills,
textiles, paper mills, and small and medium enterprises (SME). In particular there is a significant
potential in breweries, textile mills, fertilizer plants, the paper and pulp industry, solvent
extraction units, rice mills, petrochemical plants and other industries to harness biomass
power.[71]
[edit]GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
India's geothermal energy installed capacity is experimental. Commercial use is insignificant.
India has potential resources to harvest geothermal energy. The resource map for India has
been grouped into six geothermal provinces:[72]
Himalayan Province – Tertiary Orogenic belt with Tertiary magmatism
Areas of Faulted blocks – Aravalli belt, Naga-Lushi, West coast regions and Son-Narmada
lineament.
Volcanic arc – Andaman and Nicobar arc.
Deep sedimentary basin of Tertiary age such as Cambay basin in Gujarat.
Radioactive Province – Surajkund, Hazaribagh, Jharkhand.
Cratonic province – Peninsular India
India has about 340 hot springs spread over the country. Of this, 62 are distributed along the
northwest Himalaya, in the States of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
They are found concentrated along a 30-50-km wide thermal band mostly along the river
valleys. Naga-Lusai and West Coast Provinces manifest a series of thermal springs. Andaman
and Nicobar arc is the only place in India where volcanic activity, a continuation of the
Indonesian geothermal fields, and can be good potential sites for geothermal energy. Cambay
graben geothermal belt is 200 km long and 50 km wide with Tertiary sediments. Thermal
springs have been reported from the belt although they are not of very high temperature and
discharge. During oil and gas drilling in this area, in recent times, high subsurface temperature

27. and thermal fluid have been reported in deep drill wells in depth ranges of 1.7 to 1.9 km. Steam
blowout have also been reported in the drill holes in depth range of 1.5 to 3.4 km. The thermal
springs in India's peninsular region are more related to the faults, which allow down circulation
of meteoric water to considerable depths. The circulating water acquires heat from the normal
thermal gradient in the area, and depending upon local condition, emerges out at suitable
localities. The area includes Aravalli range, Son-Narmada-Tapti lineament, Godavari and
Mahanadi valleys and South Cratonic Belts.[72]
In a December 2011 report, India identified six most promising geothermal sites for the
development of geothermal energy. These are, in decreasing order of potential:
Tattapani in Chhattisgarh
Puga in Jammu & Kashmir
Cambay Graben in Gujarat
Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh
Surajkund in Jharkhand
Chhumathang in Jammu & Kashmir
India plans to set up its first geothermal power plant, with 2–5 MW capacity at Puga in Jammu
and Kashmir.[73]
TIDAL WAVE ENERGY
Tidal energy technologies harvest energy from the seas. The potential of tidal wave energy
becomes higher in certain regions by local effects such as shelving, funneling, reflection and
resonance.
India is surrounded by sea on three sides, its potential to harness tidal energy is significant.
Energy can be extracted from tides in several ways. In one method, a reservoir is created
behind a barrage and then tidal waters pass through turbines in the barrage to generate
electricity. This method requires mean tidal differences greater than 4 meters and also favorable
topographical conditions to keep installation costs low. One report claims the most attractive
locations in India, for the barrage technology, are the Gulf of Khambhat and the Gulf of Kutch on
India's west coast where the maximum tidal range is 11 m and 8 m with average tidal range of
6.77 m and 5.23 m respectively. The Ganges Delta in the Sunderbans, West Bengal is another
possibility, although with significantly less recoverable energy; the maximum tidal range in
Sunderbans is approximately 5 m with an average tidal range of 2.97 m. The report claims,
barrage technology could harvest about 8 GW from tidal energy in India, mostly in Gujarat. The
barrage approach has several disadvantages, one being the effect of any badly engineered

28. barrage on the migratory fishes, marine ecosystem and aquatic life. Integrated barrage
technology plants can be expensive to build.
In December 2011, the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy, Government of India and the
Renewable Energy Development Agency of Govt. of West Bengal jointly approved and agreed
to implement India's first 3.75 MW Durgaduani mini tidal power project.
Indian government believes that tidal energy may be an attractive solution to meet the local
energy demands of this remote delta region.[73]
Another tidal wave technology harvests energy from surface waves or from pressure
fluctuations below the sea surface.
A report from the Ocean Engineering Centre, Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai estimates
the annual wave energy potential along the Indian coast is between 5 MW to 15 MW per meter,
suggesting a theoretical maximum potential for electricity harvesting from India's 7500 kilometer
coast line may be about 40 GW.
However, the realistic economical potential, the report claims, is likely to be considerably
less.[74] A significant barrier to surface energy harvesting is the interference of its equipment to
fishing and other sea bound vessels, particularly in unsettled weather. India built its first seas
surface energy harvesting technology demonstration plant in Vizhinjam, near
Thiruruvananthpuram.
The third approach to harvesting tidal energy consists of ocean thermal energy technology. This
approach tries to harvest the solar energy trapped in ocean waters into usable energy.
Oceans have a thermal gradient, the surface being much warmer than deeper levels of ocean.
This thermal gradient may be harvested using modified Rankine cycle.
India's National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) attempted this approach over the last 20
years, but without success. In 2003, with Saga University of Japan, NIOT attempted to build and
deploy a 1 MW demonstration plant.[75] However, mechanical problems prevented success.
After initial tests near Kerala, the unit was scheduled for redeployment and further development
in the Lakshadweep Islands in 2005.
The demonstration project's experience have limited follow-on efforts with ocean thermal energy
technology in India.

29. PROBLEMS WITH INDIA'S POWER SECTOR
India's electricity sector faces many issues. Some are:[5][24][76][77]
Government giveaways such as free electricity for farmers, partly to curry political favor,
have depleted the cash reserves of state-run electricity-distribution system. This has
financially crippled the distribution network, and its ability to pay for power to meet the
demand. This situation has been worsened by government departments of India that do not
pay their bills.
Shortages of fuel: despite abundant reserves of coal, India is facing a severe shortage of
coal. The country isn't producing enough to feed its power plants. Some plants do not have
reserve coal supplies to last a day of operations. India's monopoly coal producer, state-
controlled Coal India, is constrained by primitive mining techniques and is rife with theft and
corruption; Coal India has consistently missed production targets and growth targets. Poor
coal transport infrastructure has worsened these problems. To expand its coal production
capacity, Coal India needs to mine new deposits. However, most of India's coal lies under
protected forests or designated tribal lands. Any mining activity or land acquisition for
infrastructure in these coal-rich areas of India, has been rife with political demonstrations,
social activism and public interest litigations.
Poor pipeline connectivity and infrastructure to harness India's abundant coal bed methane
and shale gas potential.
The giant new offshore natural gas field has delivered less fuel than projected. India faces a
shortage of natural gas.
Hydroelectric power projects in India's mountainous north and northeast regions have been
slowed down by ecological, environmental and rehabilitation controversies, coupled with
public interest litigations.
India's nuclear power generation potential has been stymied by political activism since the
Fukushima disaster in Japan.
Average transmission, distribution and consumer-level losses exceeding 30%.
Over 300 million people in India have no access to electricity. Of those who do, almost all
find electricity supply intermittent and unreliable.
Lack of clean and reliable energy sources such as electricity is, in part, causing about 800
million people in India to continue using traditional biomass energy sources – namely
fuelwood, agricultural waste and livestock dung – for cooking and other domestic
needs.[19] Traditional fuel combustion is the primary source of indoor air pollution in India,
causes between 300,000 to 400,000 deaths per year and other chronic health issues.

30. India‘s coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fired thermal power plants are inefficient and offer
significant potential for greenhouse gas (CO2) emission reduction through better
technology. Compared to the average emissions from coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-
fired thermal power plants in European Union (EU-27) countries, India‘s thermal power
plants emit 50 to 120 percent more CO2 per kWh produced.[78]
The July 2012 blackout, affecting the north of the country, was the largest power grid failure in
history by number of people affected.
[edit]RESOURCE POTENTIAL IN ELECTRICITY SECTOR
According to Oil and Gas Journal, India had approximately 38 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of proven
natural gas reserves as of January 2011, world‘s 26th largest. United States Energy Information
Administration estimates that India produced approximately 1.8 Tcf of natural gas in 2010, while
consuming roughly 2.3 Tcf of natural gas.
The electrical power and fertilizer sectors account for nearly three-quarters of natural gas
consumption in India. Natural gas is expected to be an increasingly important component of
energy consumption as the country pursues energy resource diversification and overall energy
security.[79][80]
Until 2008, the majority of India's natural gas production came from the Mumbai High complex in
the northwest part of the country. Recent discoveries in the Bay of Bengal have shifted the
center of gravity of Indian natural gas production.
The country already produces some coalbed methane and has major potential to expand this
source of cleaner fuel. According to a 2011 Oil and Gas Journal report, India is estimated to
have between 600 to 2000 Tcf of shale gas resources (one of the world‘s largest). Despite its
natural resource potential, and an opportunity to create energy industry jobs, India has yet to
hold a licensing round for its shale gas blocks. It is not even mentioned in India's central
government energy infrastructure or electricity generation plan documents through 2025. The
traditional natural gas reserves too have been very slow to develop in India because regulatory
burdens and bureaucratic red tape severely limit the country‘s ability to harness its natural gas
resources.[5][78][81]

31. RURAL ELECTRIFICATION
Main article: Rural Electrification Corporation Limited
India's Ministry of Power launched Rajiv Gandhi GrameenVidyutikaranYojana as one of its
flagship programme in March 2005 with the objective of electrifying over one lakh (100,000) un-
electrified villages and to provide free electricity connections to 2.34 crore (23.4 million) rural
households. This free electricity program promises energy access to India's rural areas, but is in
part creating problems for India's electricity sector.[5]
[edit]Human resource development
Rapid growth of electricity sector in India demands that talent and trained personnel become
available as India's new installed capacity adds new jobs. India has initiated the process to
rapidly expand energy education in the country, to enable the existing educational institutions to
introduce courses related to energy capacity addition, production, operations and maintenance,
in their regular curriculum. This initiative includes conventional and renewal energy.
A Ministry of Renewal and New Energy announcement claims State Renewable Energy
Agencies are being supported to organize short-term training programmes for installation,
operation and maintenance and repair of renewable energy systems in such places where
intensive RE programme are being implemented. Renewable Energy Chairs have been
established in IIT Roorkee and IIT Kharagpur.[60]
Education and availability of skilled workers is expected to be a key challenge in India's effort to
rapidly expand its electricity sector.

32. REGULATION AND ADMINISTRATION
The Ministry of Power is India's apex central government body regulating the electrical energy
sector in India. This ministry was created on 2 July 1992. It is responsible for planning, policy
formulation, processing of projects for investment decisions, monitoring project implementation,
training and manpower development, and the administration and enactment of legislation in
regard to thermal, hydro power generation, transmission and distribution. It is also responsible
for the administration of India's Electricity Act (2003), the Energy Conservation Act (2001) and to
undertake such amendments to these Acts, as and when necessary, in conformity with the
Indian government's policy objectives.[83]
Effective 31 July 2012, the Union Minister of Power is VeerappaMoily.
Electricity is a concurrent subject at Entry 38 in List III of the seventh Schedule of the
Constitution of India. In India's federal governance structure this means that both the central
government and India's state governments are involved in establishing policy and laws for its
electricity sector. This principle motivates central government of India and individual state
governments to enter into memorandum of understanding to help expedite projects and reform
electricity sector in respective state.[84]
GOVERNMENT OWNED POWER COMPANIES
India's Ministry of Power administers central government owned companies involved in the
generation of electricity in India. These include National Thermal Power Corporation, Damodar
Valley Corporation, National Hydroelectric Power Corporation and Nuclear Power Corporation
of India. ThePower Grid Corporation of India is also administered by the Ministry; it is
responsible for the inter-state transmission of electricity and the development of national grid.
The Ministry works with various state governments in matters related to state government
owned corporations in India's electricity sector. Examples of state corporations include Andhra
Pradesh Power Generation Corporation Limited, Assam Power Generation Corporation
Limited Tamil Nadu Electricity Board, Maharashtra State Electricity Board, Kerala State
Electricity Board, and Gujarat UrjaVikas Nigam Limited.
Funding of power infrastructure

33. India's Ministry of Power administers Rural Electrification Corporation Limited and Power
Finance Corporation Limited. These central government owned public sector enterprises
provide loans and guarantees for public and private electricity sector infrastructure projects in
India.
THE END
See also
Energy portal
Energy policy of India
[edit]References
a b
1. ^ "ALL INDIA REGIONWISE GENERATING INSTALLED CAPACITY OF POWER". Central Electricity
Authority, Ministry of Power, Government of India. June 2012.
a b c
2. ^ "Get enlightened about electricity - India ((1 MU = 1 Million Units in India = 1 GWhr))". The Financial
Express. December 20, 2004.
3. ^ "Power sector at a glance: All India data". Ministry of Power, Government of India. June 2012.
4. ^ World Coal Institute – India "The coal resource, a comprehensive overview of coal". World Coal Institute.
March 2009.
a b c d e
5. ^ "For India, a Power Failure Looms". The Wall Street Journal. 2 January 2012.
a b c
6. ^ UweRemme et al. (February 2011). "Technology development prospects for the Indian power sector".
International Energy Agency France; OECD.
7. ^ "World Energy Outlook 2011: Energy for All". International Energy Agency. October 2011.
a b
8. ^ "Power Sector in India: White paper on Implementation Challenges and Opportunities". KPMG.
January 2010.
9. ^ "The World Factbook". CIA. 2008. Retrieved December, 2011.
10. ^ "India: Overview, Data & Analysis". U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2011.
11. ^ "Analysis of the energy trends in the European Union & Asia to 2030". Centre for Energy‐Environment
Resources Development, Thailand. January 2009.
12. ^ Winds of change come to country plagued by power blackouts. Guardian. 30 December 2008. Retrieved
on 2012-01-13.
13. ^ "Let there be light". The Telegraph. April 26, 2009.

34. 14. ^ Electricity arrives in Mumbai
15. ^ Darjeeling Hydro Power System
16. ^ Relic of India‘s first electric railway to be dismantled
17. ^ Indian Railways History 1900-1947
18. ^ "Introductory remarks at the Roundtable Day on Energy Access and Climate Finance in Association with
UN-Energy". United Nations Development Programme. 2011.
a b
19. ^ The Partnership for Clean Indoor Air – Sierra Club. Pciaonline.org. Retrieved on 2012-01-13.
20. ^ Atmanand et al. (2009). "Energy and Sustainable Development-An Indian Perspective". World Academy
of Science.
21. ^ Ganguly et al (2001). "INDOOR AIR POLLUTION IN INDIA – A MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC
HEALTH CONCERN". Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi.
22. ^ David Pennise and Kirk Smith. "Biomass Pollution Basics". The World Health Organization.
23. ^ "The Asian Brown Cloud: Climate and Other Environmental Impacts". United Nations Environmental
Programme. 2002.
a b
24. ^ "Indoor air pollution and household energy". WHO and UNEP. 2011.
25. ^ "Green stoves to replace chullahs". The Times of India. December 3, 2009.
26. ^ "Status of Sewage Treatment in India". Central Pollution Control Board, Ministry of Environment &
Forests, Govt of India. 2005.
27. ^ "Evaluation Of Operation And Maintenance Of Sewage Treatment Plants In India-2007". Central Pollution
Control Board, Ministry of Environment & Forests. 2008.
a b c
28. ^ "Load Generation Balance Report 2011-12". Central Electricity Authority, Government of India
Ministry of Power. May 2011. Retrieved 2011-11-26.
a b
29. ^ "Gujarat solar park likely to produce 300MW by the end of December". The Live Mint &The Wall Street
Journal. August 16, 2011.
30. ^ "Gujarat govt sets aside Tata's demand for power price hike". The Times of India. December 18, 2011.
[dead link]
31. ^ Rural electrification in India
32. ^ Revkin, Andrew C. (9 April 2008). "Money for India's ‗Ultra Mega' Coal Plants Approved".The New York
Times. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
33. ^ The Electricity Access Database. iea.org
34. ^ "Housing condition in India: Household amenities and other characteristics (July – September 2002)".
Government of India.
35. ^ "Report on 17th electric power survey of India". Central Electricity Authority, Ministry of Power. 2007.
36. ^ "Powering India: The Road to 2017". McKinsey. 2008.

35. 37. ^ YoginderAlagh, Former Minister of Power and Science Technology of India (2011)."Transmission and
Distribution of Electricity in India Regulation, Investment and Efficiency". OECD.
38. ^ "India struggles with power theft". BBC. 15 March 2006. Retrieved 3 January 2010.
39. ^ "Reforming the Power Sector: Controlling Electricity Theft and Improving Revenue" (PDF). The World
Bank.
40. ^ Electricity and power shortage holding India back. Free-press-release.com (2007-06-20). Retrieved on
2012-01-13.
41. ^ Range, Jackie. (2008-10-28) India Faulted for Failure to Improve Power Supply. Online.wsj.com.
Retrieved on 2012-01-13.
42. ^ Press Information Bureau, India. "Error: no |title= specified when using {{Cite
web}}". http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=84201.
43. ^ Basistha Raj Adhikari (July 2009). "Tehri Dam: An Engineering Marvel". Hydro
Nepal 5.doi:10.3126/hn.v5i0.2481.
44. ^ "Annual Report 1991-1992". Department of Power, Govt of India. 1992.
45. ^ "Annual Report 2002-2003". Department of Power, Govt of India. 2003.
a b c d e f
46. ^ "Load Generation and Balance Report". Central Electricity Authority, Ministry of Power,
Government of India. 2011.
47. ^ "Annual Report 2010-2011". Power Finance Corporation Ltd, India – A Govt of India entity. 2011.
48. ^ "Boom time for power equipment companies". Business Standard. September 2009.
49. ^ Ravi Krishnan (March 2010). "Power Report – India: Can she make the most of her
opportunities?". Power Engineering International (PennWell): 16–20.
50. ^ "Ministry of Power". Powermin.nic.in. 2011-03-22. Retrieved 2012-08-14.
51. ^ "Private firms overtake government enterprises in power production, adds about 84% of the target". The
Economic Times. July 27, 2011.
52. ^ "Economics of Coal and Gas Based Energy". Third Wave Solutions. 2012.
53. ^ "TECHNICAL EIA GUIDANCE MANUAL FOR THERMAL POWER PLANTS". Ministry of Environment
and Forests, Government of India. 2009.
54. ^ Power Sector at a Glance ALL INDIA. Powermin.nic.in. Retrieved on 2012-01-13.
55. ^ "Highlights of Power Sector during month". Cea.nic.in. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
56. ^ Hydropower Development in India: A Sector Assessment
a b c
57. ^ "NPCIL Annual Report, 2010–2011". Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited. 2011.
58. ^ "NPCIL Annual Report, 2009–2010". Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited. 2010.
59. ^ "India Steps Up Uranium Exploration After Record Discovery". The Wall Street Journal. July 21, 2011.
a b c d e f
60. ^ "Year End Review – 2011". Press Information Bureau, Government of India. December 2011.

36. a b
61. ^ "NEW & RENEWABLE ENERGY, Cumulative deployment of various Renewable Energy Systems as
on 30/06/2012". Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Government of India. June 2012.
a b c
62. ^ "Gujarat Solar Power Transmission Project: India". Asian Development Bank. September 2011.
63. ^ Sethi, Nitin (November 18, 2009). "India targets 1,000mw solar power in 2013". Times of India.
64. ^ Consumer financing program for solar home systems in southern India. Energyglobe.info. Retrieved on
2012-01-13.
65. ^ UNEP wins Energy Globe award. Renewable-energy-world.com. Retrieved on 2012-01-13.
a b
66. ^ "World Wind Energy Report 2010" (PDF). Report. World Wind Energy Association. February 2011.
a b
67. ^ "Facts & Figures, India". Wind Power India. 2011.
68. ^ State-wise Wind Power Installed Capacity In India. windpowerindia.com
69. ^ India to add 6,000 mw wind power by 2012; but below target. Business-standard.com. Retrieved on 2012-
01-13.
70. ^ "Biomass for power generation and CHP". International Energy Agency. 2007.
71. ^ "India, Biofuels Annual 2011". United States Department of Agriculture: Global Agricultural Information
Network. July 2011.
a b
72. ^ "Geothermal fields of India". Geological Survey of India. 2001.
a b
73. ^ "Development of 3.75 MW Durgaduani Mini Tidal Power Project, Sunderbans, West Bengal". NHPC
Limited – A Government of India Enterprise. December 2011.
74. ^ "Tidal Energy in India". Energy Alternatives India. 2008.
75. ^ "Survey of Energy Resources". World Energy Council. 2007. pp. 575–576.
76. ^ Chris Gascoyne and Alexis Aik (February 2011). "Unconventional Gas and Implications for the LNG
Market FACTS Global Energy". Pacific Energy Summit.
77. ^ Amol Sharma and MeghaBahree (1 July 2012). "Grinding Energy Shortage Takes Toll on India's Growth".
The Wall Street Journal.
a b
78. ^ "CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION HIGHLIGHTS, 2011 Edition". International Energy
Agency, France. 2011.
79. ^ "Natural Gas - Proved Reserves". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved January 2012.
80. ^ "Country Analysis Brief: India". U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2011.
81. ^ "India starts testing shale-gas plays". Oil and Gas Journal. December 5, 2011.
82. ^ "MCX move to launch electricity future faces legal hurdle". The Financial Express.
83. ^ "Ministry of Power". Government of India. Retrieved December 2011.
84. ^ "REFORM PROGRAMME OF GUJARAT". Ministry of Power, Government of India. January 2001.
[edit]External links

37. Macro Patterns in the Use of Traditional Biomass Fuels – A Stanford/TERI report on energy sector
and human history
Electricity industry in the Public Sector in India
India's Energy Policy and Electricity Production
―Electricity online trading in India‖
―Energy resources in India‖

38. ELECTRICITY SECTOR IN ASIA
Afghanistan
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei
Burma (Myanmar)
Cambodia
Sovereign
People's Republic of China
states
Cyprus
East Timor (Timor-Leste)
Egypt
Georgia
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Israel

39. Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
North Korea
South Korea
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Lebanon
Malaysia
Maldives
Mongolia
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
Philippines
Qatar
Russia

40. Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syria
Tajikistan
Thailand
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Vietnam
Yemen
Abkhazia
Nagorno-Karabakh
States with limited Northern Cyprus
recognition
Palestine
South Ossetia

41. Taiwan
British Indian Ocean Territory
Christmas Island
Dependencies and
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
other territories
Hong Kong
Macau
[show]
V
T
E

42. WHAT IS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MCB ,MCCB, ELCB AND
RCCB.
MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)
AR AC TE R ISTIC S
Rated current not more than 100 A.
Trip characteristics normally not adjustable.
Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation.

43. What is the difference between MCB, MCCB, ELCB, and
RCCB
Posted O CT 25 2011 by JI GUPARM AR in ENERGY AND PO WER with 9 CO MM ENTS
Translate »
Get PDF »
MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)
C HAR AC TE R ISTI C S
Rated current not more than 100 A.
Trip characteristics normally not adjustable.
Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation.
Top
MCCB (Moulded Case Circuit Breaker)

44. C HAR AC TE R ISTI C S
Rated current up to 1000 A.
Trip current may be adjustable.
Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation.
Top
Air Circuit Breaker
C HAR AC TE R ISTI C S
Rated current up to 10,000 A.
Trip characteristics often fully adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays.
Usually electronically controlled—some models are microprocessor controlled.
Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged
in draw-out enclosures for ease of maintenance.
Top
Vacuum Circuit Breaker
C HAR AC TE R ISTI C S
With rated current up to 3000 A,
These breakers interrupt the arc in a vacuum bottle.
These can also be applied at up to 35,000 V. Vacuum circuit breakers tend to have longer life
expectancies between overhaul than do air circuit breakers.
Top

45. RCD (Residual Current Device / RCCB(Residual Current
Circuit Breaker)
C HAR AC TE R ISTI C S
Phase (line) and Neutral both wires connected through RCD.
It trips the circuit when there is earth fault current.
The amount of current flows through the phase (line) should return through neutral .
It detects by RCD. any mismatch between two currents flowing through phase and neutral detect
by -RCD and trip the circuit within 30Miliseconed.
If a house has an earth system connected to an earth rod and not the main incoming cable, then
it must have all circuits protected by an RCD (because u mite not be able to get enough fault
current to trip a MCB)
RCDs are an extremely effective form of shock protection
The most widely used are 30 mA (milliamp) and 100 mA devices. A current flow of 30 mA (or 0.03
amps) is sufficiently small that it makes it very difficult to receive a dangerous shock. Even 100 mA is a
relatively small figure when compared to the current that may flow in an earth fault without such
protection (hundred of amps)
A 300/500 mA RCCB may be used where only fire protection is required. eg., on lighting circuits, where
the risk of electric shock is small.
Top
Limitation of RCCB
Standard electromechanical RCCBs are designed to operate on normal
supply waveformsand cannot be guaranteed to operate where none standard waveforms are
generated by loads. The most common is the half wave rectified waveform sometimes called
pulsating dc generated by speed control devices, semi conductors, computers and even
dimmers.
Specially modified RCCBs are available which will operate on normal ac and pulsating dc.

46. RCDs don’t offer protection against current overloads: RCDs detect an imbalance in the live
and neutral currents. A current overload, however large, cannot be detected. It is a frequent
cause of problems with novices to replace an MCB in a fuse box with an RCD. This may be done
in an attempt to increase shock protection. If a live-neutral fault occurs (a short circuit, or an
overload), the RCD won’t trip, and may be damaged. In practice, the main MCB for the premises
will probably trip, or the service fuse, so the situation is unlikely to lead to catastrophe; but it may
be inconvenient.
It is now possible to get an MCB and and RCD in a single unit, called an RCBO (see below).
Replacing an MCB with an RCBO of the same rating is generally safe.
Nuisance tripping of RCCB: Sudden changes in electrical load can cause a small, brief current
flow to earth, especially in old appliances. RCDs are very sensitive and operate very quickly;
they may well trip when the motor of an old freezer switches off. Some equipment is notoriously
`leaky’, that is, generate a small, constant current flow to earth. Some types of computer
equipment, and large television sets, are widely reported to cause problems.
RCD will not protect against a socket outlet being wired with its live and neutral
terminalsthe wrong way round.
RCD will not protect against the overheating that results when conductors are not properly
screwed into their terminals.
RCD will not protect against live-neutral shocks, because the current in the live and neutral
is balanced. So if you touch live and neutral conductors at the same time (e.g., both terminals of
a light fitting), you may still get a nasty shock.
Top
ELCB (Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker)
C HAR AC TE R ISTI C S
Phase (line), Neutral and Earth wire connected through ELCB.

47. ELCB is working based on Earth leakage current.
Operating Time of ELCB:
The safest limit of Current which Human Body can withstand is 30ma sec.
Suppose Human Body Resistance is 500Ω and Voltage to ground is 230 Volt.
The Body current will be 500/230=460mA.
Hence ELCB must be operated in 30maSec/460mA = 0.65msec
Top
RCBO (Residual Circuit Breaker with OverLoad)
It is possible to get a combined MCB and RCCB in one device (Residual Current Breaker with
Overload RCBO), the principals are the same, but more styles of disconnection are fitted into
one package
Top
Difference between ELCB and RCCB
ELCB is the old name and often refers to voltage operated devices that are no longer available
and it is advised you replace them if you find one.
RCCB or RCD is the new name that specifies current operated (hence the new name to
distinguish from voltage operated).
The new RCCB is best because it will detect any earth fault. The voltage type only detects earth
faults that flow back through the main earth wire so this is why they stopped being used.
The easy way to tell an old voltage operated trip is to look for the main earth wire connected
through it.
RCCB will only have the line and neutral connections.
ELCB is working based on Earth leakage current. But RCCB is not having sensing or
connectivity of Earth, because fundamentally Phase current is equal to the neutral current in
single phase. That’s why RCCB can trip when the both currents are deferent and it withstand up
to both the currents are same. Both the neutral and phase currents are different that means
current is flowing through the Earth.
Finally both are working for same, but the thing is connectivity is difference.
RCD does not necessarily require an earth connection itself (it monitors only the live and
neutral).In addition it detects current flows to earth even in equipment without an earth of its
own.
This means that an RCD will continue to give shock protection in equipment that has a faulty
earth. It is these properties that have made the RCD more popular than its rivals. For ex ample,
earth-leakage circuit breakers (ELCBs) were widely used about ten years ago. These devices
measured the voltage on the earth conductor; if this voltage was not zero this indicated a current
leakage to earth. The problem is that ELCBs need a sound earth connection, as does the
equipment it protects. As a result, the use of ELCBs is no longer recommended.
Top

48. MCB Selection
The first characteristic is the overload which is intended to prevent the accidental overloading of
the cable in a no fault situation. The speed of the MCB tripping will vary with the degree of the
overload. This is usually achieved by the use of a thermal device in the MCB.
The second characteristic is the magnetic fault protection, which is intended to operate when the
fault reaches a predetermined level and to trip the MCB within one tenth of a second. The level
of this magnetic trip gives the MCB its type characteristic as follows:
Type Tripping Current Operating Time
Type B 3 To 5 time full load current 0.04 To 13 Sec
Type C 5 To 10 times full load current 0.04 To 5 Sec
Type D 10 To 20 times full load current 0.04 To 3 Sec
The third characteristic is the short circuit protection, which is intended to protect against heavy
faults maybe in thousands of amps caused by short circuit faults.
The capability of the MCB to operate under these conditions gives its short circuit rating in Kilo
amps (KA). In general for consumer units a 6KA fault level is adequate whereas for industrial
boards 10KA fault capabilities or above may be required.
Top
Fuse and MCB characteristics
Fuses and MCBs are rated in amps. The amp rating given on the fuse or MCB body is the
amount of current it will pass continuously. This is normally called the rated current or nominal
current.
Many people think that if the current exceeds the nominal current, the device will trip, instantly.
So if the rating is 30 amps, a current of 30.00001 amps will trip it, right? This is not true.
The fuse and the MCB, even though their nominal currents are similar, have very different
properties.
For example, For 32Amp MCB and 30 Amp Fuse, to be sure of tripping in 0.1 seconds, the MCB
requires a current of 128 amps, while the fuse requires 300 amps.
The fuse clearly requires more current to blow it in that time, but notice how much
bigger boththese currents are than the ’30 amps’ marked current rating.
There is a small likelihood that in the course of, say, a month, a 30-amp fuse will trip when
carrying 30 amps. If the fuse has had a couple of overloads before (which may not even have
been noticed) this is much more likely. This explains why fuses can sometimes ‘blow’ for no
obvious reason

49. If the fuse is marked ’30 amps’, but it will actually stand 40 amps for over an hour, how can we
justify calling it a ’30 amp’ fuse? The answer is that the overload characteristics o f fuses are
designed to match the properties of modern cables. For example, a modern PVC -insulated cable
will stand a 50% overload for an hour, so it seems reasonable that the fuse should as well.

50. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE POWER TRANSFORMER AND
DISTRIBUTION
TRANSFORMER
Power transformers are used in transmission network of higher voltages for step-up and step down
application (400 kV, 200 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, 33kV) and are generally rated above 200MVA.
Distribution transformers are used for lower voltage distribution networks as a means to end user
connectivity. (11kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV, 440V, 230V) and are generally rated less than 200 MVA.
Transformer Size / Insulation Level:
Power transformer is used for the transmission purpose at heavy load, high voltage greater than 33
KV & 100% efficiency. It also having a big in size as compare to distribution transformer, it used in
generating station and Transmission substation .high insulation level.
The distribution transformer is used for the distribution of electrical energy at low voltage as less
than 33KV in industrial purpose and 440v-220v in domestic purpose. It work at low efficiency at 50-
70%, small size, easy in installation, having low magnetic losses & it is not always fully loaded.

51. Iron Losses and Copper Losses
Power Transformers are used in Transmission network so they do not directly connect to the
consumers, so load fluctuations are very less. These are loaded fully during 24 hr’s a day, so Cu
losses & Fe losses takes place throughout day the specific weight i.e. (iron weight)/(cu weight) is very
less .the average loads are nearer to full loaded or full load and these are designed in such a way that
maximum efficiency at full load condition. These are independent of time so in calculating the efficiency
only power basis is enough.
Power Transformers are used in Distribution Network so directly connected to the consumer so load
fluctuations are very high. these are not loaded fully at all time so iron losses takes place 24hr a day
and cu losses takes place based on load cycle. the specific weight is more i.e. (iron weight)/(cu
weight).average loads are about only 75% of full load and these are designed in such a way that max
efficiency occurs at 75% of full load. As these are time dependent the all day efficiency i s defined in
order to calculate the efficiency.
Power transformers are used for transmission as a step up devices so that the I2r loss can be
minimized for a given power flow. These transformers are designed to utilize the core to maximum and
will operate very much near to the knee point of B-H curve (slightly above the knee point value).This
brings down the mass of the core enormously. Naturally these transformers have the matched iron
losses and copper losses at peak load (i.e. the maximum efficiency point where both the losses match).
Distribution transformers obviously cannot be designed like this. Hence the all-day-efficiency comes
into picture while designing it. It depends on the typical load cycle for which it has to supply. Definitely
Core design will be done to take care of peak load and as well as all-day-efficiency. It is a bargain
between these two points.
Power transformer generally operated at full load. Hence, it is designed such that copper losses are
minimal. However, a distribution transformer is always online and operated at loads less than full load
for most of time. Hence, it is designed such that core losses are minimal.
In Power Transformer the flux density is higher than the distribution transformer.
Maximum Efficiency
The main difference between power and distribution transformer is distribution transformer is designed
for maximum efficiency at 60% to 70% load as normally doesn’t operate at full load all the time. Its load
depends on distribution demand. Whereas power transformer is designed for maximum efficiency at
100% load as it always runs at 100% load being near to generating station.
Distribution Transformer is used at the distribution level where voltages tend to be lower .The
secondary voltage is almost always the voltage delivered to the end consumer. Because of voltage
drop limitations, it is usually not possible to deliver that secondary voltage over great distances.

52. As a result, most distribution systems tend to involve many ‘clusters’ of loads fed from distribution
transformers, and this in turn means that the thermal rating of distribution transformers doesn’t have to
be very high to support the loads that they have to serve.
.
All day efficiency = (Output in KWhr) / (Input in KWhr) in 24 hrs which is always less than pow er
efficiency.
http://www.greenpeace.org/india/en/Multimedia/Brikesh-
arrives-at-the-tree-house/
LOAD TRANSMISION LINE STRUCTURE

53. Loads on Transmission Line Structure
Loads are calculated on the structures in three directions: vertical, transverse, and longitudinal. The
transverse load is perpendicular to the line and the longitudinal loads act parallel to the line
Vertical Loads
The vertical load on supporting structures consists of the weight of the structure plus the superim-posed
weight, including all wires, ice coated where specified. Vertical load of wireVwin. (lb/ft) is given by the
following equations:
Transverse Loads
Transverse loads are caused by wind pressure on wires and structure, and the transverse component of
thelinetensionat angles
Wind Load on Wires
The transverse load due to wind on the wire is given by the following equations:

54. Transverse Load Due to Line Angle
Where a line changes direction, the total transverse load on the structure is the sum of the transverse
wind load and the transverse component of the wire tension. The transverse component of the tension
may be of significant magnitude, especially for large angle structures. To calculate the total load, a wind
direction should be used which will give the maximum resultant load considering the effects on the wires
and structure. The transverse component of wire tension on the structure is given by the following
equation:
Wind Load on Structures
In addition to the wire load, structures are subjected to wind loads acting on the exposed areas
of the structure. The wind force coefficients on lattice towers depend on shapes of member sections,
solidity ratio, angle of incidence of wind (face-on wind or diagonal wind), and shielding. Methods for
calculating wind loads on transmission structures are given in the ASCE Guide as well the NESC code
Longitudinal Loading
There are several conditions under which a structure is subjected to longitudinal loading: Deadend
Structures—These structures are capable of withstanding the full tension of the conductors and shield
wires or combinations thereof, on one side of the structure. Stringing— Longitudinal load may occur at
any one phase or shield wire due to a hang-up in the blocks during stringing. The longitudinal load is
taken as the stringing tension for the complete phase (i.e., all subconductors strung simultaneously) or a
shield wire. In order to avoid any prestressing of the conductors, stringing tension is typically limited to the
minimum tension required to keep the conductor from touching the ground or any obstructions. Based on
common practice and according to the IEEE ―Guide to the Installation of Overhead Transmission Line
Conductors‖ , stringing tension is generally about one-half of thesaggingtension. Therefore, the
longitudinal stringing load is equal to 50% of the initial, unloaded tension at 60 F. Longitudinal
Unbalanced Load—Longitudinal unbalanced forces can develop at the structures due to various
conditions on the line. In rugged terrain, large differentials in adjacent span lengths, combined with

55. inclined spans, could result in significant longitudinal unbalanced load under ice and wind conditions.
Non-uniform loading of adjacent spans can also produce longitudinal unbalanced loads. This load is
based on an ice shedding condition where ice is dropped from one span and not the adjacent spans.
Reference includes a software that is commonly used for calculating unbalanced loads on the structure.
EXAMPLE
Determine the wire loads on a small angle structure in accordance with the data given below. Use
NESC medium district loading and assume all intact conditions. Given Data:
Solution
NESC Medium District Loading

56. Reference: ―Transmission Structures‖ Structural EngineeringHandbook by Fang, S.J.; Roy, S. and
Kramer, J.
Article Tags: #Loads on Transmission #Vertical Loads #Transverse Loads #Wind Load on Wires #Line
Angle #Transverse Load #Wind Load on Structures #Longitudinal Loading#Loads on Transmission Line
Structure #Transmission Line Structure