Socialization Process

Introduction to Behavioral Sciences
Collection of Journals
The Socialization Process and
Society, Culture and Values
Presented to the Faculty Of the
Department of Languages, Humanities and Social Sciences
Cavite State University
Indang, Cavite
A Class Project by
BS Biology 2-1 Batch 2013-2014 and Irregulars
SOCS1
October 2014

Introduction
This project was a compilation of different journals under the subjects assigned to by
their professor of the students in Introduction to Behavioral Sciences. It contains journals under
the subjects The Socialization Process and Society, Culture and Values, which was obtained
from different sources of comparison.
The Socialization Process discusses on the individual and how he or she interacts with the
environment in order to achieve belongingness and social status in the community. Socialization
is the process by which children and adults learn from others. This topic discusses the factors
that influence socialization and the agents which induce socialization to the individual.
Society, Culture and Values discusses on how an individual affects the society and its
environment. It also tackles how a culture was created by the individuals living in the community
and the norms that are created and learned because of the society.
This collection of journals was due to the collaboration of the BS Biology students and
the irregulars who are also taking up the subject under the same course code.

Table of Contents
The Socialization Process
A. Development of the Social Self
I. Function of Socialization………………………………………………6-11
II. Agencies of Socialization………………………………………….….11-14
B. Social Group
I. Concept of Group…………………………………………………….15-26
II. Factor that Influence Group…………………………………………..26-29
III. Classification of Groups………………………………………………29-30
IV. Importance of Groups………………………………………..……….30-32
Society, Culture, and Values
A. Concept of Society……………………………………………………………37-43
B. Culture
I. Characteristics of Culture……………………………………….……43-53
C. Filipino Values
I. Past VS Present………………………………………………...…….53-59
II. Values and Social Change……………………………………….…..59-82

The Socialization Process
Socialization is the process by which children and adults learn from others. We begin
learning from others during the early days of life; and most people continue their social learning
all through life (unless some mental or physical disability slows or stops the learning process).
Sometimes the learning is fun, as when we learn a new sport, art or musical technique from a
friend we like. At other times, social learning is painful, as when we learn not to drive too fast by
receiving a large fine for speeding.
Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters explore, play and discover the
social world around them.
Planned socialization occurs when other people take actions designed to teach or train
others from infancy on. Natural socialization is easily seen when looking at the young of almost
any mammalian species (and some birds). Planned socialization is mostly a human phenomenon;
and all through history, people have been making plans for teaching or training others. Both
natural and planned socialization can have good and bad features: It is wise to learn the best
features of both natural and planned socialization and weave them into our lives.
Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and
exciting experiences. We tend to like the people who fill our social learning processes with
positive motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities.
Negative socialization occurs when others use punishment, harsh criticisms or anger to
try to "teach us a lesson;" and often we come to dislike both negative socialization and the people
who impose it on us. There are all types of mixes of positive and negative socialization; and the
more positive social learning experiences we have, the happier we tend to be -- especially if we

learn 1useful information that helps us cope well with the challenges of life. A high ratio of
negative to positive socialization can make a person unhappy, defeated or pessimistic about life.
Our prior socialization helps explain a gigantic chunk of who we are at present -- what
we think and feel, where we plan to go in life. But we are not limited by the things given to us by
our prior social learning experiences; we can take all our remaining days and steer our future
social learning in directions that we value. The more that we know about the socialization
process, the more effective we can be in directing our future learning in the ways that will help
us most.
Because we were not able to select our parents, we were not able to control much of the
first 10 or 20 years of our socialization. However, most people learn to influence their own
socialization as they gain experience in life. It takes special skills to steer and direct our own
socialization, and many of us pick up some of those skills naturally as we go through life.
Having a course on socialization can help us understand which skills are most effective in
guiding our socialization toward the goals we most value. It is important to know that we all
come into life with a variety of psychology systems that foster self-actualization and favor the
development of our human potential. These are the biosocial mechanisms that underlie natural
socialization. We can see and study natural socialization by examining the socialization of
primates and other mammals. Once we under the natural biosocial processes, we can try to build
strategies of self-actualization that are compatible with the natural biosocial mechanisms we are
born with to make self-development as easy and rewarding as possible.
1 ht tp://www.soc.ucsb.edu/faculty/baldwin/classes/soc142/scznDEF.html

A.DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIAL SELF
I. FUNCTION OF SOCIALIZATION
Socialization is the dominant factor in human progress. The analysis of its character and
significance has been the central object of this essay. Emphasize, as we must, the influence of
geographic environment or the role of heredity in determining both the characteristics of ethnic
groups and individual differences in temperament and mentality within groups, yet the problem
of a scientific explanation for human evolution is only partially solved.
Socialization, or the co participation of persons in the mental unity of group life, is, as we
have seen, the efficient determinant in progress. Over against the physical environment we place
the social environment. The physical environment provides the condition for social life: the
social environment with its tools of thought and technique functions for the efficient control of
the environment. Over against physical heredity we emphasize social heredity.
Physical heredity with its chromosomes, its unit determinants, and its laws of dominance
and of segregation determines the physical characteristics and mental capacity of the person:
social heredity endows him with the social capital of humanity. And what are social environment
and social heredity but aspects of the process of socialization? With every step in human
progress both personal and social development and achievement are less and less dependent
upon the immediate pressure of , the geographic environment or upon the congenital physical
and mental equipment of the person and are more and more determined by the nature and degree
of his participation in the process of socialization.
Socialization, we repeat, is the central process in social evolution. It is not necessary at
this point to make a detailed of our evidence for the dominant of socialization in human
development. The inner unity of our thesis is indicated by the dynamic part played by the

socializing process in material evolution, in social progress, and in personal development. Our
present efficient control over nature is but the objective expression of the functional organization
of the minds of men down the ages and across continents that we have named socialization. Our
present social order, imperfect as it is, our codes of morals, our standards of conduct, and our
ideals—the social organism in its most rigid form and its most plastic tendencies—is a passing
stage in socialization. Then, too, the degree of the development of personality, whether measured
by the technique of control over things and persons, or by aesthetic refinement and emotional
power, or by the rhythm of action and reaction in the social life, stands for the index of the
socialization of the individual. So, then, this study of the of socialization in social evolution has a
practical significance. The dependence of discovery and invention upon socialization leads us to
reject the doctrine of economic determinism.
Geographic influences, in general, but condition randomly in extreme instances
determines human activity. The social environment, social heredity, social organization—in a
word, socialization—is the dominant forces. Thus, instead of economic determinism we have
psychic and social determinism. In speaking of social determinism we mean more than Ward
incorporated in his term "social telesis." For Ward, as we have seen, thought that society could
only accelerate, but not direct, the course of social evolution. But social determinism is the
constructive phase of the process of socialization, and signifies the evaluation of social
tendencies and the consequent direction of the movement of society toward the highest human
welfare. Recognition of the process of socialization means that social evolution in the future is
not to be the outgrowth of economics, but rather the product of ethics.
In the failure to perceive this fact, as Professor Ellwood has demonstrated, lay the error of
Marx. What Marx did emphasize, however, and with rough truth, was that the emergence of the

working class into the world of action would amount to a revolution. His mistake lay in too crude
a conception of the social change involved, namely, in his blindness to the subtle processes of
socialization. He dreamed of social ends being achieved by violence, and of the violent taking
the coming social kingdom by force. He did not appreciate the force of the mental explosion of
the proletariat into the thought-world which hitherto had been effectually safeguarded against the
masses.
The study of social progress in England which we have made is an interpretation of the
class struggle from the standpoint of socialization. All indications point to an intellectual rather
than a physical solution of the conflict. For all social orders, according to our analysis, rest upon
and require a reconstruction of mental attitude and are characterized by a peculiar type of
socialization. However basic pecuniary values are for the realization of human value sit is in the
human values that the aspirations of men find realization. Since the passing of primitive
democracy human nature has been warped in every social order to meet the peculiar
requirements of efficiency in the industrial activities of that order. With the realization of
democracy in our present age it is now possible to reconstruct our social order so that it will
conform more nearly to the fundamental impulses of human nature. At any rate, the realization
of a socialized order is bound up, in the interplay of cause and effect, with the socialization of the
person.
The identification of the individual in thought and sympathy with the ongoing of
humanity will multiply the tendencies toward the social direction of human evolution. In the
future we may hope to parallel in the achievement of social control our present efficient physical
control over nature. This control over men is not to be won by the loss of individual freedom and
happiness. Indeed the harnessing of our social forces is to come, we believe, in its most efficient

and effective form through increasing the freedom and heightening the happiness of the person.
If this be a paradox, the clue to its solution lies in the socialization of the per-son. The socializing
of the individual means that he consciously shapes his aims and purposes to harmonize with the
promotion of the coordinated welfare of all members of society. The fact that the person is the
center of initiative and invention, that rivalry with his fellows releases the "reserve stores of
energy," means from the standpoint of socialization that the individual will be recognized as the
active agent in social reconstruction. In so acting he realizes his best self. His fullest participation
in the store of knowledge, in the higher refinements of play and of art, and in both the
generalized and the specialized social activities results in the development of personality and in
the joy and happiness of life.
Thus, for material evolution, for social progress, and for personal development the factor
of socialization has dwarfed the factors of geographic environment and inborn mental capacity.
Socialization has become the predominant force in social evolution. Wish the establishment of
this point the primary purpose of our thesis is accomplished. There is, however, a secondary
object of methodological rather than of practical importance. The attempt has been made to
formulate the content of the term "socialization." For the progress of sociological thinking it was
deemed desirable to develop a coherent organization of the concept "socialization." A cursory
examination of both social and sociological literature reveals the need of such an attempt. In
contrast with the term "physical environment" and with the term "physical heredity" it is
desirable to have a definite unitary conception. This has been the purpose of our analysis of the
term "socialization." "Social environment," "social heredity," "education," "nurture," "social
capital, “and numerous other phrases now in current use are all aspects of the process of
socialization and get a more definite and dynamic significance when this relationship is

recognized. The old controversy as to the relative influence of heredity and environment upon
the life of the person loses its ambiguities and vagueness when the confused middle, i. e., the
social influences, is clearly defined and socialization is recognized as the decisive factor.
Among sociologists the process of socialization has been often pointed out since Simmel
gave the term currency, yet with the larger number it has not been given an adequate place in the
sociological system. Spencer "blazed the trail" in his rather crude analysis of the process under
the mechanical term "super-organic evolution. Ward went wide of the mark when he maintained
that "achievement “is the central fact of human association. Giddings was closer to the truth, but
seriously limited his explanation of the operation of the social forces when in his earlier writings
he confined his attention too closely to the "consciousness of kind Small, however, concentrated
his analysis upon the main aspect of human evolution in his clear and thorough description of the
concept "the social process.
We may point out here that while the social process is the form, socialization is the
product of human association. In the actual analysis of socialization individual sociologists have
also tended to overestimate certain aspects of socialization to the exclusion of others.
Socialization of the person is not merely on the cognitive side (Ward[9] ) ; nor on the affective
side (Ross[10] and Giddings[11] ) ; nor on the volitional side (Ward[12] ) ; but is the all-round
development of all these aspects of the self in the free and full participation of the person in
social thought, social sentiment, and social action. With this explanation of the primary and
secondary purposes of the thesis we close our study. Adequate recognition of the scope and play
of socialization in social evolution should have a part in the quickening of social thinking and in
the enlightening of social action. In conclusion, we may restate the thesis and the argument. The
socialization of the person consists in his all-round participation in the thinking, the feeling, and

the activities of the group. In short, socialization is "personality freely unfolding under
conditions of healthy fellowship." Society viewed from this aspect is an immense co-operative
concern for the promotion of personal development. But social organization is not the end of
socialization; the end and the function of socialization is the development of persons. The
relation is even closer: personality consists, almost wholly, in socialization, in this mental
interaction of the person and his group. The person is coming to realize that in achieving his
interests he must at the same time achieve functional relations with all other persons. In this
achieving of right relations with his fellows, in this capacity of fitting "into an infinitely refined
and complex system of co-operation the development of personality consists.
II. AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION
Primary socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values, and actions
appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. For example, if a child saw his/her
mother expressing a discriminatory opinion about a minority group, then that child may think
this behavior is acceptable, and could continue to have this opinion about minority groups.
Secondary socialization: Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning the
appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. It is usually
associated with teenagers and adults, and involves smaller changes than those occurring in
primary socialization; e.g., entering a new profession or relocating to a new environment.
Developmental socialization: Developmental socialization is the process of learning
behavior in a social institution or developing your social skills.
Anticipatory socialization: Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of
socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social
relationships.

Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting
new ones as part of a transition in one's life. This occurs throughout the human life cycle
(Schaefer & Lamm, 1992: 113). Resocialization can be an intense experience, with the individual
experiencing a sharp break with their past and needing to learn and be exposed to radically
different norms and values. An example might be the experience of a young man or woman
leaving home to join the military, or a religious convert internalizing the beliefs and rituals of a
new faith. An extreme example would be the process by which a transsexual learns to function
socially in a dramatically altered gender role.
Agents of Socialization: Agents of socialization are the people and groups that influence
our self concepts, emotions, attitudes, and behaviors. The family: family is responsible for the
youth and, among other things, determining one's attitudes toward religion. and establishing
career goals. Education: education is the agency responsible for socializing groups of young
people with particular skills and values in society. Religion: religions play a major role in
socialization, in the context often synonymous with "indoctrination."Peer groups: peers refer to
the people who are roughly the same age and/or who share other social characteristics (e.g.,
students in a college class).The mass media. Other agents: the work place, public institutions,
etc. The Media and Socialization: Theorists, like Parsons, and textbook authors, like Ely Chinoy
(1960), and Harry M. Johnson (1961), recognized that socialization didn't stop when childhood
ended. They realized that socialization continued on into adulthood, but they treated it as a form
of specialized education. Johnson (1961), for example, wrote about the importance of inculcating
members of the US Coastguard with a set of values so as to respond to commands and act in
unison without question. Later scholars accused these theorists of socialization of not
recognizing the importance of the mass media which, by the middle of the twentieth century, was

becoming more significant as a social force. There was concern about the link between television
and the education and socialization of children, a concern that continues today, but when it came
to adults, the mass media were regarded merely as sources of information and entertainment,
rather than molders of personality. Some sociologist and theorists of culture have recognized the
power of mass communication as a socialization device. Dennis Mc Quail recognizes the
argument: … the media can teach norms and values by way of symbolic reward and punishment
for different kinds of behavior as represented by the media. An alternative view is that it is a
learning process whereby we all learn how to behave in certain situations, and with the
expectations which go with a given role or status in society. Thus, the media are continually
offering pictures of life and models of behavior in advance of actual experience. -McQuail 2005:
494)
Socialization is the process whereby individuals are made aware of behaviors that are
expected of them with regards to the norms, beliefs, attitudes, and values of the society in which
they live. Socialization helps the individual face the realities of life, through the appreciation of
their culture practices. The agencies of socialization are the social institutions that pass on to the
people these norms, values, beliefs, and attitudes. There are several agencies of socialization
which are developmental: anticipatory, resocialization, reverse, primary, and secondary
socialization. However, the main agencies are those regarding primary socialization, which is the
process where people learn attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members
of a particular culture.
Secondary socialization agencies are important too. These agencies are responsible for
the processes in where individuals learn appropriate behaviors as members of a smaller group

within the larger society. Under the primary agencies are the family, peer groups, and opinion
leaders.
The family is the most integral part of every individual's upbringing, thus one of the most
important agencies of socialization. The family has the power to influence an individual's self-concepts,
emotions, attitudes, and behaviors. Peer groups are made up of people with similar
ages and statuses in society. This group also sets the norms and values by which the individual
must abide. Under the secondary agencies of socialization are the work environment, education,
mass media, and religion. The mass media, which serve as the medium of communication, is one
of the agencies of socialization. Through the mass media, individuals are able to learn and adopt
new lifestyles and behaviors which, at the end, become a convention in society. An example of
this is fashion. Religion is another major agency of socialization, because it embodies the moral
principles of society. In this respect, religion has its own set of norms, values, and objectives that
regulate the conduct of its members. In conclusion, it is from these agencies of socialization that
we learn how to act in the way that others expect of us in society.

B.SOCIAL GROUP
I. CONCEPT OF GROUP
Socialization is the process by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary
to perform as a functioning member of their society, and is the most influential learning process
one can experience. Unlike many other living species, whose behavior is biologically set,
humans need social experiences to learn their culture and to survive. Although cultural
variability manifests in the actions, customs, and behaviors of whole social groups (societies),
the most fundamental expression of culture is found at the individual level. This expression can
only occur after an individual has been socialized by his or her parents, family, extended family,
and extended social networks. This reflexive process of both learning and teaching is how
cultural and social characteristics attain continuity. Many scientists say socialization essentially
represents the whole process of learning throughout the life course and is a central influence on
the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children.
Klaus Hurrelmann
From the late 1980s, sociological and psychological theories have been connected with
the term socialization. One example of this connection is the theory of Klaus Hurrelmann. In his
book "Social Structure and Personality Development" (Hurrelmann 1989/2009), he develops The
"Model of Productive Processing of Reality (PPR)." The core idea is that socialization refers to
an individual's personality development. It is the result of the productive processing of interior
and exterior realities. Bodily and mental qualities and traits constitute a person's inner reality; the
circumstances of the social and physical environment embody the external reality. Reality
processing is productive because human beings actively grapple with their lives and attempt to
cope with the attendant developmental tasks. The success of such a process depends on the

personal and social resources available. Incorporated within all developmental tasks is the
necessity to reconcile personal individuation and social integration and so secure the "I-dentity."
(Hurrelmann1989/2009: 42)
Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg's (1981) theory of moral development studied moral reasoning (how
individual reason situations as right from wrong) within three stages of young childhood. The
first is the pre-conventional stage, where children experience the world in terms of pain and
pleasure. Second, the conventional stage appears in the teen years of maturation. Teenagers learn
to define right and wrong according to the desires of their parents and begin to conform to
cultural norms resulting in a decrease of selfishness. The last stage of moral development is the
post-conventional level where people move beyond society's norms and consider abstract ethical
principles.
Carol Gilligan
Carol Gilligan compared the moral development of girls and boys in her theory of gender
and moral development. She claimed (1982, 1990) that boys have a justice perspective meaning
that they rely on formal rules to define right and wrong. Girls, on the other hand, have a care and
responsibility perspective where personal relationships are considered when judging a situation.
Gilligan also studied the effect of gender on self-esteem. She claimed that society's socialization
of females is the reason why girls' self-esteem diminishes as they grow older. Girls struggle to
regain their personal strength when moving through adolescence as they have fewer female
teachers and most authority figures are men.

Erik H. Erikson
Erik H. Erikson (1902–1994) explained the challenges throughout the life course. The
first stage in the life course is infancy, where babies learn trust and mistrust. The second stage is
toddlerhood where children around the age of two struggle with the challenge of autonomy
versus doubt. In stage three, preschool, children struggle to understand the difference between
initiative and guilt. Stage four, pre-adolescence, children learn about industriousness and
inferiority. In the fifth stage called adolescence, teenagers experience the challenge of gaining
identity versus confusion. The sixth stage, young adulthood, is when young people gain insight
to life when dealing with the challenge of intimacy and isolation. In stage seven, or middle
adulthood, people experience the challenge of trying to make a difference (versus self-absorption).
In the final stage, stage eight or old age, people are still learning about the challenge
of integrity and despair.
George Herbert Mead
George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) developed a theory of social behaviorism to explain
how social experience develops an individual's self-concept. Mead's central concept is the self: It
is composed of self-awareness and self-image. Mead claimed that the self is not there at birth,
rather, it is developed with social experience. Since social experience is the exchange of
symbols, people tend to find meaning in every action. Seeking meaning leads us to imagine the
intention of others. Understanding intention requires imagining the situation from the others'
point of view. In effect, others are a mirror in which we can see ourselves. Charles Horton
Cooley (1902-1983) coined the term looking glass self, which means self-image based on how
we think others see us. According to Mead the key to developing the self is learning to take the
role of the other. With limited social experience, infants can only develop a sense of identity

through imitation. Gradually children learn to take the roles of several others. The final stage is
the generalized other, which refers to widespread cultural norms and values we use as a reference
for evaluating others.
Judith R. Harris
Group Socialization
Judith R. Harris (b. 1938) graduated magna cum laude with her master degree in
psychology from Harvard University. She received the George A. Miller Award for her proposed
theory of group socialization (GS theory). This theory states that a child’s adult personality is
determined by childhood and adolescent peer groups outside of the home environment and that
“parental behaviors have no effect on the psychological characteristics their children will have as
adults.” Harris proposes this theory based on behavioral genetics, sociological views of group
processes, context-specific learning, and evolutionary theory. While Harris proposed this theory,
she attributes the original idea to Eleanor E. Maccoby and John A. Martin both of whom are
doctors at Standford University and wrote the chapter on family socialization found in the fourth
edition of The Handbook of Child Psychology. After extensively reviewing the research
conducted on parent-child interactions, Maccoby and Martin (1983) state that their findings
suggest that parental behavior and the home environment has either no effect on the social
development of children, or the effect varies significantly between children.

Behavioral genetics suggest that up to fifty percent of the variance in adult personality is due to
genetic differences. The environment in which a child is raised accounts for only approximately
ten percent in the variance of an adult’s personality. As much as twenty percent of the variance is
due measurement error. This suggests that only a very small part of an adult’s personality is
influenced by factors parents control (i.e. the home environment). Harris claims that while it’s
true that siblings don’t have identical experiences in the home environment (making it difficult to
associate a definite figure to the variance of personality due to home environments), the variance
found by current methods is so low that researchers should look elsewhere to try to account for
the remaining variance.
Harris also states that developing long-term personality characteristics away from the
home environment would be evolutionarily beneficial because future success is more likely to
depend on interactions with peers than interactions with parents and siblings. Also, because of
already existing genetic similarities with parents, developing personalities outside of childhood
home environments would further diversify individuals, increasing their evolutionary success.
Stages
Richard Moreland and John Levine (1982) created a model of group socialization based
upon the assumption that individuals and groups change their evaluations and commitments to
each other over time. Since these changes happen in all groups, Moreland and Levine speculate
that there is a predictable sequence of stages that occur in order for an individual to transition
through a group.
Moreland and Levine identify five stages of socialization which mark this transition;
investigation, socialization, maintenance, resocialization, and remembrance. During each stage,

the individual and the group evaluate each other which lead to an increase or decrease in
commitment to socialization. This socialization pushes the individual from prospective, new,
full, marginal, and ex member.
Stage 1: Investigation This stage is marked by a cautious search for information. The individual
compares groups in order to determine which one will fulfill their needs (reconnaissance), while
the group estimates the value of the potential member (recruitment). The end of this stage is
marked by entry to the group, whereby the group asks the individual to join and they accept the
offer.
Stage 2: Socialization Now that the individual has moved from prospective member to new
member, they must accept the group’s culture. At this stage, the individual accepts the group’s
norms, values, and perspectives (assimilation), and the group adapts to fit the new member’s
needs (accommodation). The acceptance transition point is then reached and the individual
becomes a full member. However, this transition can be delayed if the individual or the group
reacts negatively. For example, the individual may react cautiously or misinterpret other
members’ reactions if they believe that they will be treated differently as a new comer.
Stage 3: Maintenance During this stage, the individual and the group negotiate what contribution
is expected of members (role negotiation). While many members remain in this stage until the
end of their membership, some individuals are not satisfied with their role in the group or fail to
meet the group’s expectations (divergence).
Stage 4: Resocialization -If the divergence point is reached, the former full member takes on the
role of a marginal member and must be resocialized. There are two possible outcomes of
resocialization: differences are resolved and the individual becomes a full member again
(convergence), or the group expels the individual or the individual decides to leave (exit).

Stage 5: Remembrance In this stage, former members reminisce about their memories of the
group, and make sense of their recent departure. If the group reaches a consensus on their
reasons for departure, conclusions about the overall experience of the group become part of the
group’s tradition.
Main article: Primary socialization
Primary socialization for a child is very important because it sets the ground work for all
future socialization. Primary Socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values, and
actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. It is mainly influenced by
the immediate family and friends. For example if a child saw his/her mother expressing
a discriminatory opinion about a minority group, then that child may think this behavior is
acceptable and could continue to have this opinion about minority groups.
Secondary socialization: Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning the
appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. Basically, it is the
behavioral patterns reinforced by socializing agents of society. Secondary socialization takes
place outside the home. It is where children and adults learn how to act in a way that is
appropriate for the situations they are in. Schools require very different behavior from the home,
and Children must act according to new rules. New teachers have to act in a way that is different
from pupils and learn the new rules from people around them. Secondary Socialization is usually
associated with teenagers and adults, and involves smaller changes than those occurring in
primary socialization. Such examples of Secondary Socialization are entering a new profession
or relocating to a new environment or society.
Anticipatory socialization: Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of
socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social

relationships. For example, a couple might move in together before getting married in order to
try out, or anticipate, what living together will be like. Research by Kenneth J. Levine and
Cynthia A. Hoffner suggests that parents are the main source of anticipatory socialization in
regards to jobs and careers.
Re-socialization: Re-socialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior
patterns and reflexes, accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life. This occurs
throughout the human life cycle. Re-socialization can be an intense experience, with the
individual experiencing a sharp break with his or her past, as well as a need to learn and be
exposed to radically different norms and values. One common example involves re-socialization
through a total institution, or "a setting in which people is isolated from the rest of society and
manipulated by an administrative staff". Re-socialization via total institutions involves a two step
process: 1) the staff work to root out a new inmate's individual identity & 2) the staff attempt to
create for the inmate a new identity. Other examples of this are the experience of a young man or
woman leaving home to join the military, or a religious convert internalizing the beliefs and
rituals of a new faith. An extreme example would be the process by which a transsexual learns to
function socially in a dramatically altered gender role.

Organizational socialization
Organizational Socialization Chart
Organizational socialization is the process whereby an employee learns the knowledge
and skills necessary to assume his or her organizational role. As newcomers become socialized,
they learn about the organization and its history, values, jargon, culture, and procedures. This
acquired knowledge about new employees' future work environment affects the way they are
able to apply their skills and abilities to their jobs. How actively engaged the employees are in
pursuing knowledge affects their socialization process. They also learn about their work group,
the specific people they work with on a daily basis, their own role in the organization, the skills
needed to do their job, and both formal procedures and informal norms. Socialization functions
as a control system in that newcomers learn to internalize and obey organizational values and
practices.
Group socialization: Group socialization is the theory that an individual's peer groups,
rather than parental figures, influences his or her personality and behavior in adulthood.
Adolescents spend more time with peers than with parents. Therefore, peer groups have stronger
correlations with personality development than parental figures do. For example, twin brothers,

whose genetic make-up is identical, will differ in personality because they have different groups
of friends, not necessarily because their parents raised them differently.
Entering high school is a crucial moment in many adolescent's lifespan involving the branching
off from the restraints of their parents. When dealing with new life challenges, adolescents take
comfort in discussing these issues within their peer groups instead of their parents. Peter Grier,
staff writer of the Christian Science Monitor describes this occurrence as," Call it the benign side
of peer pressure. Today's high-schoolers operate in groups that play the role of nag and nanny-in
ways that are both beneficial and isolating."
Gender socialization Henslin (1999:76) contends that "an important part of socialization
is the learning of culturally defined gender roles." Gender socialization refers to the learning of
behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. Boys learn to be boys and girls
learn to be girls. This "learning" happens by way of many different agents of socialization. The
family is certainly important in reinforcing gender roles, but so are one’s friends, school, work
and the mass media. Gender roles are reinforced through "countless subtle and not so subtle
ways" (1999:76).
As parents are present in a child's life from the beginning, their influence in a child's early
socialization is very important, especially in regards to gender roles. Sociologists have identified
four ways in which parents socialize gender roles in their children: Shaping gender related
attributes through toys and activities, differing their interaction with children based on the sex of
the child, serving as primary gender models, and communicating gender ideals and expectations.
Racial socialization: Racial socialization has been defined as "the developmental
processes by which children acquire the behaviors, perceptions, values, and attitudes of an ethnic
group, and come to see themselves and others as members of the group". The existing literature

conceptualizes racial socialization as having multiple dimensions. Researchers have identified
five dimensions that commonly appear in the racial socialization literature: cultural socialization,
preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust, egalitarianism, and other. Cultural socialization
refers to parenting practices that teach children about their racial history or heritage and is
sometimes referred to as pride development. Preparation for bias refers to parenting practices
focused on preparing children to be aware of, and cope with, discrimination. Promotion of
mistrust refers to the parenting practices of socializing children to be wary of people from other
races. Egalitarianism refers to socializing children with the belief that all people are equal and
should be treated with a common humanity.
Planned socialization: Planned socialization occurs when other people take actions
designed to teach or train others—from infancy on.
Natural Socialization: Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters explore,
play and discover the social world around them. Natural socialization is easily seen when
looking at the young of almost any mammalian species (and some birds). Planned socialization is
mostly a human phenomenon; and all through history, people have been making plans for
teaching or training others. Both natural and planned socialization can have good and bad
features: It is wise to learn the best features of both natural and planned socialization and weave
them into our lives.
Positive socialization: Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on
pleasurable and exciting experiences. We tend to like the people who fill our social learning
processes with positive motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities.
Negative socialization: Negative socialization occurs when others use punishment, harsh
criticisms or anger to try to "teach us a lesson;" and often we come to dislike both negative

socialization and the people who impose it on us. There are all types of mixes of positive and
negative socialization; and the more positive social learning experiences we have, the happier we
tend to be—especially if we learn useful information that helps us cope well with the challenges
of life. A high ratio of negative to positive socialization can make a person unhappy, defeated or
pessimistic about life.2
II. FACTOR THAT INFLUENCE GROUP
It was the first day of kindergarten. The children arrived with new clothes, lunch boxes, book
bags stuffed with wide-line tablets, fat pencils, a blanket for naptime, and a box of 100 crayons.
As a teacher, I watched the children’s faces and those of their parents and realized that some of
these children were not ready to leave home. Small hands clutched a parent’s hand, eyes
brimmed with tears, and even a few sobs echoed from one corner of the room. For some, the
socialization process had not occurred. Social-Emotional Development Specific tasks related to
social development occur in early childhood, just like developmental tasks occur in cognitive
growth. The term social refers to a relationship or interaction between two or more people, who
by definition respond to each other and influence each other’s behavior. Socialization is an
important process in child development. Stated simply, it is the process whereby individuals,
especially children, become functioning members of a particular group and take on the values,
behaviors, and beliefs of the group’s other members. Although the process begins shortly after
birth and continues into adulthood, the age of early childhood is a crucial period of socialization.
How children are disciplined, how they respond to this discipline, and how they develop
independent behavior are all connected to the process in which socialization occurs.
2 ht tp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialization

The Family and Parental Influences
Families are different, and the role of the family is changing. According to Smart and Smart
(1980), “Each family is unique in the expectations of the people in various roles, in its patterns of
interaction, its history of development, and its relationship with other systems”. However, family
categories usually fall into three groups:
1. The nuclear family consists of a mother, father, and offspring living together.
2. When two or more families live together, this is known as an extended family. Within this
group are grandparents, uncles, aunts, or other relatives.
3. The third family group is that of single parent households. The proportion of children living in
single-parent homes more than doubled between 1970 and 1998 – from 12% to 28%. Children
living only with their mothers were more than twice as likely to live in poverty than those living
with only their fathers (47% vs. 20%).
Dimensions of Parental Behavior
Researchers believe that acceptance-rejection and control-autonomy are contributing
factors that determine a family’s attitude toward child rearing. The structure of the family and the
personality characteristics of individual parents make a difference in socialization as will be
demonstrated in the following examples. Will, a father of two young children, believes that
spending time each day with his kids is vital to developing strong family ties. During this time,
the children talk about their day, engage in some type of physical activity, such as going for a
walk, playing with their dog, or enjoying simple games. Hugging his children, telling them how
important they are in Will’s life is a part of each day. In return, his children feel accepted in this
warm environment. His friends often remark, “Your children show such responsibility and self-

control. What are you doing that makes a difference?” When children feel this level of
acceptance, they want to please and parents become their best role model.
Next, let’s look at Susan a mother of a six-year-old. At the end of a long workday, Susan is
exhausted. Instead of giving her daughter a few minutes of quality time when she comes home,
she immediately starts working on the home chores. “Every time I want to talk to my mother, she
is too busy, too tired, or says ‘wait till later’,” remarks her daughter. Later never seems to come.
Parents who use rejection in parental behavior may have children who are hostile and aggressive
toward others. I recall a home of six youngsters where the children were extremely well behaved.
Some years later I talked with one of the adolescent boys in that home and he said, “On occasion,
my father had to watch us while our mother ran to the grocery store. He made each one of us
sit on the couch and dared us to move. A large paddle stood nearby. We were scared to death of
him.” Restrictive parents who use strict control usually have children who are well behaved.
However, these children may be highly dependent on the parents. On the other hand, parents and
teachers that are highly permissive allow children to make the rules. In these settings, the child is
clearly the “boss.” Take for example, Lorri and her three year-old son. “Whenever my friends
visit, my son interrupts constantly, jumps on the furniture, and is loud and noisy,” says Lorri.
“Often I have to count to three several times. Nothing seems to help.” Children who see
autonomy as a form of parental and caregiver behavior may be sociable and assertive youngsters
who are aggressive. Achieving a balance between these dimensions of parental behavior
seems to be the ideal, yet it is difficult to accomplish. The Effects of Punishment and Discipline
The approach to punishment and discipline is another developmental task of learning. When
children misbehave, teachers or parents may use some form of discipline. This approach may be
in the form of spanking, scolding, yelling, embarrassing, or making the child feel inferior or

unloved. Often a combination of these is involved. These negative approaches may have
unwanted results (Park, 1977). Parents and teachers that rely on a positive approach to discipline
teach the child the appropriate behavior and reinforce that behavior, which makes it less likely to
recur in the future. For example, if a child turns over their milk at the table, have them clean up
the spill instead of punishing. This positive approach teaches the child what to do when an
accident happens. Consistency is vital in guiding children to a higher level of socialization. Often
teachers scold or punish a child for a behavior one day, and the next appear to ignore the same
behavior. This happens due to the mood of the teacher at the moment. Consistency in discipline
allows the child to know what he can and cannot do. Parents and teachers can assist children in
socialization by building a sense of trust and a feeling they can have some control over their life
(Maccoby, 1980). Children who are disruptive and seek attention may draw attention to self
through silly behaviors, immature or regressive actions, loud talking, and making inappropriate
noises or gestures. Educators suggest that parents terminate disruptive attention-seeking
behaviors and increase cooperative, prosocial interactions. (Jongsma, Peterson, McInnis, 2000)3
III. CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS
1. SOCIAL MEMBERSHIP. The common membership of the group is what we call in-group. It
defines the social orientation along feeling of belongingness and companionship. The social
preference of the in-group derives from group associations. The opposite side of this is the out-group;
it connotes more on an antagonistic group that sometimes create group conflicts such as
the existence of fraternities. There are those groups that may identify certain level of reference
based on political and economic affiliations. This group is called reference group that
characterize by the idea of recognition and respect among other members of society. There are
also the small groupings of the society which consider as the peer group. In at larger scale of
3 ht tp://www.earlychildhoodnews.com/earlychildhood/article_view.aspx?ArticleID=553

social interaction of the group, the voluntary association entails the membership of individual or
group such as the regional associations, military organizations and other voluntary organization.
2. SOCIAL INTERACTION OF GROUPS The social group is further classified according
primary group and secondary group. The primary group responds to the face-to-face
communication which is more personal and intimate in nature. While the secondary group entails
the formal communication in business or government organization. The organization position
and designation gives credence in the way the group communicate each other.
.3. NATURE OF SOCIAL GROUPS The group provides specific form as to the nature of
interaction in the society. The nature of social group is either informal group or formal group.
When the social interaction responds to the shared emotions, beliefs and sentiments of the
members of the group then it is called informal groups. The advantage of this group is the sense
of belongingness as interaction with the common social interests and issues in the society
happens. On the other hand, the formal organization adheres the rigid formal structure wherein
the line authority in the position is respected in the organizational structure. It is therefore created
by the organizational communication in public and private organization with formal sets of
philosophy, mission, vision and goals as adhered by the motive for profit or service-oriented
enterprise. Finally, the concept of the Gemeinschaft and Gesselschaft formulated by Ferdinand
Tonnies may also form part on the nature of social groups .The Gemeinschaft considers the
social interaction of the rural areas or communities wherein the set of values, beliefs, norms,
culture and tradition is deeply embedded by the way they communicate each other. While the
Gesselschaft recognizes the distinct feature in urban areas as the social groups are characterize

by formal, impersonal and fragmented relationships. Usually, it considers the highly
sophisticated culture, and impersonal way of social interaction.4
IV. IMPORTANCE OF GROUPS
Group discussion on study is essential for effective learning. In group discussion learning
is shared and student participating in discussion are benefitted.
When you study a topic, discuss it with your classmates in college. Tell your classmates or
friend that you will discuss about a particular topic tomorrow so that they can prepare the topic
for tomorrow’s discussion. In discussion every student has his turn to talk. Try to be polite and
friendly in discussion. Participating in group discussion has the many benefits. Let me explain
some of the main benefits
It enhances your learning – You learn more.
Your friend may have learnt a topic well comparatively. He may have picked up some
important points from the topic which you may have not. When you discuss it with him, you
learn these points as well. Similarly you may have learnt some points in a topic which he may
have missed, so he learns it in discussion. In this way the learning is shared and you are
benefitted.
Discussion generates good questions – helps in preparation for exam.
When you discusses about a topic with your friend in group, you can freely ask any
question which you have in your mind about any point in the topic and you get the answer.
Similarly they ask questions.
Different minds discussing about a topic, generates good questions and try to find their
answers. These are the conceptual questions which are asked in the exams. In this way, Group
4 ht tp://www.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_classification_of_groups_in_sociology

discussion helps in preparation for exams by generating conceptual question and finding their
answers.
It shows you your weakness – it improves you.
Until you don’t know about your weaknesses, you cannot improve. In group discussion
you come to know that in which areas you are weak and you need to focus more on them to
improve.
It rectifies your mistakes.
You may learn something wrong. You may make a wrong concept about a topic which
you think is correct. When you share it in discussion, you come to know that it is wrong. In this
way, your wrong concept is rectified. If you don’t discusses it group, you may write this wrong
concept even in exam and get less marks for it.
It helps you on “how to study and how to make preparation for exam”.
While discussing on a topic, inspired from a student you ask him how he studies or how
he make preparation for exam? In this way, you improve your study method or preparation
method
It helps for oral exams – It improves your communication skills.
By participating in group discussions you can improve your communication skills. In this
way it prepares you for oral exams and interviews as well.5
5 ht tp://www.studyandexam.com/importance-of-study-discussion.html

C. SOCIETY, CULTURE AND VALUES
SOCIETY
A human society is a group of people involved in persistent interpersonal relationships, or
a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the
same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Human societies are characterized
by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture
and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among
its constituent members. In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification or
dominance patterns in subgroups. Insofar as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members
to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis; both individual
and social (common) benefits can thus be distinguished, or in many cases found to overlap.
A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values
within a dominant, larger society. This is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used
extensively within criminology. More broadly, and especially within structuralist thought, a
society may be illustrated as an economic, social, industrial or cultural infrastructure, made up
of, yet distinct from, a varied collection of individuals. In this regard society can mean the
objective relationships people have with the material world and with other people, rather than
"other people" beyond the individual and their familiar social environment. Members of a society
may be from different ethnic groups.
A society can be a particular ethnic group, such as the Saxons; a nation state, such as
Bhutan; or a broader cultural group, such as a Western society. The word society may also refer
to an organized voluntary association of people for religious, benevolent, cultural, scientific,
political, patriotic, or other purposes. A "society" may even, though more by means of metaphor,

refer to a social organism such as an ant colony or any cooperative aggregate such as, for
example, in some formulations of artificial intelligence.6
CULTURE
Culture (/ˈkʌltʃər/, from Latin: cultura, lit. "cultivation" is a concept based on a term first
used in classical antiquity by the Roman orator Cicero: "cultura animi" (cultivation of the soul).
This non-agricultural use of the term "culture" re-appeared in modern Europe in the 17th century
referring to the betterment or refinement of individuals, especially through education. During the
18th and 19th century it came to refer more frequently to the common reference points of whole
peoples, and discussion of the term was often connected to national aspirations or ideals. Some
scientists such as Edward Tylor used the term "culture" to refer to a universal human capacity. In
the 20th century, "culture" emerged as a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the
range of human phenomena that cannot be directly attributed to genetic inheritance. Specifically,
the term "culture" in American anthropology had two meanings:
1. the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and to act
imaginatively and creatively; and
2. the distinct ways that people, who live differently, classified and represented their experiences,
and acted creatively Hoebel describes culture as an integrated system of learned behavior
patterns which are characteristic of the members of a society and which are not a result of
biological inheritance. Distinctions are currently made between the physical artifacts created by a
society, its so-called material culture, and everything else, the intangibles such as language,
customs, etc. that are the main referent of the term "culture".
The modern term "culture" is based on a term used by the Ancient Roman orator Cicero
in his TusculanaeDisputationes, where he wrote of a cultivation of the soul or
6 ht tp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society

"culturaanimi",using an agricultural metaphor for the development of a philosophical soul,
understood teleological as the highest possible ideal for human development. Samuel Pufendorf
took over this metaphor in a modern context, meaning something similar, but no longer assuming
that philosophy was man's natural perfection. His use and that of many writers after him "refers
to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice,
become fully human, as described by Velkley.
The term "culture," which originally meant the cultivation of the soul or mind, acquires
most of its later modern meanings in the writings of the 18th-century German thinkers, who were
on various levels developing Rousseau's criticism of ″modern liberalism and Enlightenment″.
Thus a contrast between "culture" and "civilization" is usually implied in these authors, even
when not expressed as such. Two primary meanings of culture emerge from this period: culture
as the folk-spirit having a unique identity and culture as cultivation of waywardness or free
individuality. The first meaning is predominant in our current use of the term "culture," although
the second still plays a large role in what we think culture should achieve, namely the full
"expression" of the unique or "authentic" self.7
VALUES
A personal value is absolute or relative and ethical value, the assumption of which can be
the basis for ethical action. A value system is a set of consistent values and measures. A principle
value is a foundation upon which other values and measures of integrity are based. Some values
are physiologically determined and are normally considered objective, such as a desire to avoid
physical pain or to seek pleasure. Other values are considered subjective, vary across individuals
and cultures, and are in many ways aligned with belief and belief systems. Types of values
include ethical/moral values, doctrinal/ideological (religious, political) values, social values, and
7 ht tp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture

aesthetic values. It is debated whether some values that are not clearly physiologically
determined, such as altruism, are intrinsic, and whether some, such as acquisitiveness, should be
classified as vices or virtues. Values have been studied in various disciplines: anthropology,
behavioral economics, business ethics, corporate governance, moral philosophy, political
sciences, social psychology, sociology and theology to name a few.
Values can be defined as broad preference concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes.
As such, values reflect a person's sense of right and wrong or what "ought" to be. "Equal rights
for all", "Excellence deserves admiration", and "People should be treated with respect and
dignity" are representative of values. Values tend to influence attitudes and behavior.8
Personal values
According to Morris Massey, values form during three significant periods:
Imprint period - from birth to 7 years
Modeling period - from 8 to 13 years
Socialization period - from 13 to 21 years
Personal values provide an internal reference for what is good, beneficial, important,
useful, beautiful, desirable, constructive, etc. Values generate behavior and help solve common
human problems for survival by comparative rankings of value, the results of which provide
answers to questions of why people do what they do and in what order they choose to do them.
Over time the public expression of personal values that groups of people find important in their
day-to-day lives, lay the foundations of law, custom and tradition. Recent research has thereby
stressed the implicit nature of value communication.
Personal values exist in relation to cultural values, either in agreement with or divergence
from prevailing norms. A culture is a social system that shares a set of common values, in which
8 ht tp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)

such values permit social expectations and collective understandings of the good, beautiful,
constructive, etc. Without normative personal values, there would be no cultural reference
against which to measure the virtue of individual values and so culture identity would
disintegrate. Wyatt Woodsmall points out that "'Criteria' are used to refer to 'the standards on
which an evaluation is based'." Values relate then to what one wants and in what order one wants
them; criteria can only refer to the evidences for achieving values and act as a comparative
standard that one applies in order to evaluate whether goals have been met / values satisfied9
A.CONCEPT OF SOCIETY
From Leon H. Mayhew's article, "Society," in vol 14 of the International Encyclopedia of
the Social Sciences(Macmillan & Free Press, 1968), pp. 577-86: 'society' is frequently used
merely to refer to an encompassing network of social relationships that enclose some more
specific phenomenon which is the primary object of analysis. . . . It is only when analysis begins
to isolate the attributes of the larger whole which we term 'a society' that analytical treatments of
the concept begin to emerge. . . .
"Analytical definitions usually treat a society as a relatively independent or self-sufficient
population characterized by internal organization, territoriality, cultural distinctiveness, and
sexual recruitment. . . . "It is not surprising that definitions of society are so closely articulated
with conceptions of the nature and functions of sociological thought, for from the beginning of
the analytical development of the concept, social theorists have found in 'society' a convenient
foundation for relating their specific problems to a larger context. .
"History of the concept. In the Western world the concept of society as an entity distinct
from the state emerged rather late. The age of reason, when philosophers began to search for
secular foundations for critical analysis of existing political institutions, was one of the earliest
9 ht tp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)

periods when Western thinkers came to view society as something clearly prior to and outside of
the state. The vehicle used to establish this differentiation was the social contract doctrine. . . .
The utilitarian conception of society. . . . [T]he liberal thinkers of the Enlightenment wished to
justify secular rational criticism of the state. In developing a critical doctrine, such thinkers as
Locke began to distinguish the law of nature from the social contract that had formed the state.
For Locke there is a layer of natural order guaranteed by man's interdependence and his sense of
the natural rights of all. . . "By a similar logic the critical philosophers sought to establish
analytical distinctions between society and church and to separate church and state. . . .The idea
of society developed during the Enlightenment was not entirely satisfactory, for the ultimate
premises of argument continued to be the same premises from which Hobbes had derived the
war of all against all. Enlightenment thought was founded on the concept of reason. The method
of reason is analytical reduction; complex wholes must be reduced to their fundamental particles
and the whole reassembled by a process of deduction from the laws governing the particles. For
society, the particle is the individual, and the law governing particles derives from the most
essential quality of individuals, their natural reason. Each man uses his reason to rationally
pursue his chosen ends. . . . The utilitarian could protect their Achilles heel, that is, the problem
of conflicting ends, only by arbitrarily postulating such metaphysical concepts as the 'natural
identity of interests,' 'natural rights,' and 'the spirit of sociability.' "The more perceptive figures of
the Enlightenment -- Hume, for example -- recognized the inner weakness of the utilitarian
conception . . . "Romanticism and organism after the French Revolution, many social theorists
became disillusioned with individual reason and the reductive methods of the analytical
philosophers. As the philosophy of romanticism became more influential. . Society came to be
viewed as an organic whole, embodying the practical and profound wisdom of convention and

tradition. Being a cumulative organic product, society has an organic unity. Abstract analytical
segments cannot be separated from the whole and arbitrarily changed; to do so is to destroy the
complex interdependence of the web of social life . . . ."The organism conception . . . drew
attention to a new element, cultural tradition, as a functionally necessary part of society. The idea
of a cultural order as a constituent part of a society was developed further by August Comte in
the early nineteenth century. . . . At the same time he refused to derive the larger society from
individual reason and the concurrence of interests. Drawing on organism conservatism, he found
in cultural tradition the specifically collective factor in society. For Comte, the formation of any
society presupposed a system of common opinions about nature and man. The Enlightenment
philosophers, by destroying the normative order of the religiously based society, had loosed
anarchy upon the world. Comte argued that the reformation of society required the creation of a
new, scientifically based moral order. Again we see an example of the ideological use of the
concept of society. .
"The belief that society is an institutional order which embodies a fundamental set of
cultural ideas was prominent in another branch of romantic thought which might be termed
'idealism.' Idealism, which was especially prominent in nineteenth-century German thought,
stresses the cultural distinctiveness of each society. A society reflects a peculiar Geist or spirit
that is embodied in its distinctive traditions and institutions. . . . "The economic conception of
society. . . . "According to Marx, society exists in the concrete relations between social groups
and not in the concepts used by philosophers to summarize these relations. The Geist is a mere
analytical construct of the observer. The real foundations of society and the real springs of social
development lie in the economic relations between men. . . . . "[This] conception of society starts
with the assumption that man's most fundamental problem is to provide for his material needs.

To do so, man must cooperate with other men by entering into relations of production. Stable
relations of production constitute economic structures. Economic structures are variable, but they
generally involve two crucial phenomena: the division of men into classes and the exploitation of
one class by another. . . . The state, law, religion, and ideology function to bring temporary
stability into inherently unstable situations. Since economic structure is more basic, it can be
termed the 'substructure' of society; and the supporting institutions may be termed the
'superstructures' . . . In the theory of substructure and superstructure, we see one of the first and
most comprehensive theories of society as an institutional order. "Conflict theory. The Marxian
conception of society is one of a larger set of conceptions that can combine under the heading of
'conflict theory.' The premise of conflict theory is that men are organisms, and as such they must
compete for access to the resources of life. The struggle for existence does not occur between
isolated individuals but between certain groups. In various versions of conflict theory the
competing units may be families, bands, classes, nations, or races, depending on the special
interests of the analyst or the stage of social development under analysis. . . . Society is viewed
as an organizational device for relating populations of organisms to an environment, and in this
sense conflict theory may be said to adopt an ecological perspective. . "Emergence of the
'utilitarian society.' Nineteenth-century evolutionary theory . . . worked out developmental
sequences for every institutional sphere of society. . . . As [societies come to increase in scale
and complexity. new forms of social organization become possible. Social organization can be
built upon processes of free discussion, free exchange, and the pursuit of individual interests.
The inflexibility of the 'cake of custom' and rigid military organization becomes nonadaptive;
only a looser framework of organization can improve the adaptation of society to the
environment by unleashing the forces of creativity and innovation. . . . "Not all of the social

analysts writing at the end of the nineteenth century viewed the emergence of the utilitarian
society with equanimity. According to some analysts, the breakdown of old forms of
organization meant the loss of what had once provided society with integration, coherence, and
meaning. The utilitarian society, founded upon the industrial revolution, the capitalist system,
and the market mentality, fails to provide for an ethical standard outside of the individual or a
viable source of social cohesion. "In 1887 Tönnies incorporated this type of perspective into his
famous dichotomy between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. In the Gemeinschaft (usually
translated as 'community') men are held together by communal feeling and organic ties. In the
Gesellschaft (usually translated as 'society') organic ties are replaced by artificial ties of
calculating self-interest. . . . "The independent reality of society. In 1893 Durkheim . .
Reaffirmed the reality of society as an entity. . . . He insisted that a modern society, founded on
the extensive division of labor, cannot be conceptualized as a mere collection of the wills of
isolated individuals. It is . . . no less organic than earlier forms of society. . . . "Other analysts of
the era developed similar techniques for identifying the reality of the social. Simmel found a
social level in the mutual influence that interacting persons have upon each other. Mutual
influence comes to have coherent forms, and thus, as people interact, they create society. . . .
'The social-psychological approach. In the United States a social-psychological school
emerged which found in the concept of symbolic interaction the key to the integrated treatment
of society and the social person. Cooley, Mead, and others explored the development of
personality and society as they emerge through interaction. Their analysis permitted a novel
conceptualization of human society as a symbolically regulated process. . . . It is through
participation in that complex of differentiated and interrelated roles called 'society' that we
develop our distinctly human capacities and identities. It is through adopting, playing, and

imaginatively construing social roles that we develop social personality. Thus, self and society
are intimately connected through the concept of role. . . . "Society as process. . . . the most
sophisticated analysts converged on the idea that society is ultimately an organized process. . . .
The units of [social] relations are not people but activities. . . . "The new emphasis on process did
not eliminate the ideological component of the concept of society. . . . For example, the
popularity of the social-psychological approach in the United States cannot be separated from its
capacity to provide a sociological foundation [for] the defense of either conservatism or
radicalism, depending on whether social reality is conceived as an irreducible obstacle or an
inexorable transformative force. . . .
"The truth or falsehood of alternative conceptions of society is not at issue here. . . .
"How . . . is a society to be distinguished from a community? The term community has been used
in a variety of ways. For some, communities are locally based units of a larger society; for
others, 'community' refers to some aspect of society, such as its solidarity (that is, communal) or
spatial components. Others, particularly in the German sociological tradition, distinguish
communities as relatively solitary types of societies. "It is legitimate to use the term 'community'
to refer to both locally based units and some aspect of the larger society. . . . The concept of
population can be used in a similar way to distinguish societies from other sets of systems of
social processes, since the latter may have sets of members without having populations in the
biotic sense. A society is sustained by a population. To establish the boundaries of a societal
population we may adopt a definition of population quite similar to the one employed by
bioecologists: A population consists of the self- perpetuating inhabitants of a territorial area. In
this context the term 'self-perpetuation' implies mating, and the term 'inhabitant' implies
relatively permanent residence. Thus, the boundaries of a society are established by the limits of

the largest territorial area within which mating is common and residence is relatively
permanent."The society is not the population, but the complex systems of action in which the
units of the population participate. "In a highly organized society, which closely controls the
relations between the units of its population and members of other populations, it may be useful
to treat only relations within the societal population as internal to the society. On the other hand,
when societal systems become very permeable to social influences that transcend population
boundaries, it is more realistic to consider the society to have irregular boundaries and to overlap
other societies. "If sociological analysis is adequately to represent the constraints imposed by this
emergent global level of social reality, its analytical conceptions must not be inflexibly tied to
the concept of the national boundary."10
B.CULTURE
I. CHARACTERISCTIC OF CULTURE
1. What are the characteristics of culture?
Culture has a number of characteristics. It is: (1) prescriptive, (2) socially shared, (3)
learned, (4) subjective, (5) enduring, (6) cumulative, and (7) dynamic. Furthermore, it facilitates
communication.
2. Explain the impact of culture on consumption.
Consumption patterns are dictated by culture, and consumption habits vary greatly. Some
Chinese do not understand how Americans can eat beef, believing that it is improper to eat cattle
that work on farms. Americans, in contrast, do not understand how some Chinese and Koreans
can eat dogs, the animal often treated as pets or family members in the United States.
Interestingly, the Korean government, during the Olympics, banned such traditional delicacies as
dog stew, snake soup, blood worm soup, and deer antlers for fear of offending foreigners who
10 ht tp://community.plu.edu/~jensenmk/271society.html

might label Koreans as barbaric. Therefore, not only does culture influence what is to be
consumed, but it also affects what should not be purchased.
3. What is the SRC (self-reference criterion)?
The SRC explains how the individual tends to be bound by his or her own cultural
assumptions. The individual thus observes foreign cultures by making reference back to personal
cultural values. As a result, perception of overseas events can be distorted by the effects of the
SRC.
4. Distinguish between high-context and low-context cultures.
In low-context cultures (e.g., the United States), messages are explicit and clear in the
sense that actual words are used to convey the main part of information in communication. The
words and their meanings, being independent entities, can be separated from the context in which
they occur. In high-context cultures (e.g., Japan), the context of communication is high because,
in addition to the verbal part, it includes a great deal of extra information, such as the message
sender's values, position, background, and associations in the society. As such, the message
cannot be understood without its context. One's individual environment (i.e., physical setting and
social circumstances) determines what one says and how one is interpreted by others.
5. Distinguish between monochronic and polychronic cultures.
Monochronic cultures (e.g., the United States) handle information in a direct,
linearfashion. Schedules, punctuality, and a sense that time form a purposeful straight line
areindicators of such cultures. In polychronic cultures (e.g., Japan), people work on several
fronts simultaneously instead of pursuing a single task.
6. Explain how the meanings of time, space, agreement/disagreement, and friendship can vary
from one culture to another. Also discuss their business implications.

Perceptions of time are culture bound. In the United States, there is a direct relationship
between time and the importance of a matter. In some countries, a reverse relationship exists.
Space has its own meaning and is relative. What is perceived as crowded in the United States
may be perceived as spacious somewhere else. Culture dictates how an agreement or a
disagreement is expressed and resolved. North Americans prefer a straightforward and explicit
approach. Elsewhere, one must be careful in a disagreement never to make someone lose face.
The development of friendship is also affected by culture. Americans have no difficulty in
developing friendship in a very short time. Friendship is not developed as fast in other countries,
but, when it is developed, it tends to be deeper and to be longer lasting.
DISCUSSIONS
1. Which one of the following seems to better characterize the world: cultura l
commonality or cultural diversity?
This question is similar to asking whether the glass is half-full or half-empty. The answer
thus depends on one's perspective. Still, the world is perhaps much better characterized by
cultural diversity. There is no useful purpose to study culture and international marketing if
consumers were homogeneous. The lack of commonality is readily apparent. Countries have
religious, philosophical, and environmental differences. Consumption and perceptual differences
are everywhere. Conflicts arise because of the failure of nations to understand each other. It is
thus a grave mistake to assume that everyone wants to be like us. Cultural commonality will
exist only when there is but one language remaining worldwide.
2. Because English is the world language of business, is it necessary for U.S. managers to learn a
foreign language?

English is a second language in most parts of the world because of the recognition of the
importance of English as a business communication medium. Still American managers should
learn a foreign language, especially that of a country with which they do a significant portion of
business. Without the knowledge of a foreign language, American managers are at a
disadvantage because their foreign counterparts can converse in two languages. Not only the
knowledge of a foreign language makes an American manager aware of what his counterparts
are saying to each other, but also he can make a good impression by showing interest in the other
country's language and culture. Furthermore, the practice makes it more likely for American
managers to understand the logic and thinking of their foreign customers or suppliers.
3. Do you agree that the United States is a "melting pot"?
The U.S. melting pot is a misconception because sub cultural differences are everywhere.
Being aware of these differences, U.S. firms segment the U.S. market based on region (e.g.,
South, West), race (e.g., white, black,), language (e.g., English, Spanish), occupation (e.g.,
professionals, truck drivers), age (e.g., young, old), and so on. The idea is to appeal to consumers
through their subcultures.
4. As Hispanic consumers in the United States are also American consumers, is it necessary for
marketers to adjust their marketing mix for this market segment?
This question is highly related to the previous one. It is true that Hispanic consumers are
American consumers. Equally true is the fact that they have their own identity, language, and
preferences. Thus, it is necessary to adjust the marketing mix for this market segment. It should
be noted that all segmentation criteria are met. This Hispanic segment is different, identifiable,
accessible through selective advertising media, and sufficiently large. It should come as no
surprise then that firms create advertisements just for this group.

5. Explain how culture affects the ways people use eating utensils (e.g., fork, spoon, knife,
chopsticks).
Culture affects how people use eating utensils. In some cultures, people eat with their
hands instead of using utensils. The Chinese and Japanese, of course, are well known for their
chopsticks. Americans and Europeans use fork and knife to cut food on their dinner plates to
bite-sized portions. Many other peoples have no need for a knife at the dinner table because meat
has already been precut to small portions before cooking (e.g., Chinese foods). Asians are likely
to use table spoons instead of knives, and they use spoons of varying shapes and sizes. The way
Americans hold and use forks and knives differ from how these things are used in England,
Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. People there eat with their forks upside down. Because the curved
fork facilitates the lifting of food to the mouth, food is raked onto the fork with a knife. In
addition, these Europeans do not set their knives down after cutting meat. They simply eat left
handed since switching the fork from the left hand to the right hand is a wasted motion.
6. Explain why people in several countries are upset when they see: (a) an advertisement
showing an American crossing his legs at the reader or putting his legs on a table; and (b)
Americans wearing shoes into their homes.
In many cultures, feet are low and dirty. As a result, it is an insult to cross the legs, put
the legs on a table, or uses a leg to point at something. Americans wear shoes into their own
houses, thinking that the floor is dirty. In most cultures, shoes--not the floor--are the ones which
are dirty. Since the floor is swept and mopped every day, walking into someone's home with
shoes on is a sign of ignorance and disrespect of someone's home.
7. According to Edward T. Hall, a renowned anthropologist, American are more comfortable
with Germans than with the Japanese because Germans generally make eye contact to indicate

attention to a speaker. Still, the Americans feel that the Germans do not smile often enough. How
do the Germans and Japanese regard the Americans' frequent smiles and eye contact?
Americans smile frequently to show friendliness and make frequent eye contact to show
interest and sincerity. But quick and frequent smiles may be taken as a sign of insincerity and an
indication of suspicious motive. Germans regard smiling and casual touching as things for friend.
Friendship cannot be developed alone by smiles. Also eye contact is a sign of aggression. In
many countries, people get into a fight just by looking at each other.
8. According to William Wells of the DDB Needham Worldwide advertising agency, American
TV commercials are usually shown either as an illustrated lecture or as a drama in which a
product is a prop (or a mixture of both techniques). Why is the lecture approach (a low-context
technique) inappropriate for high-context cultures? Why is the drama approach (a high-context
technique) appropriate for Japan? Note that Japanese commercials go to great lengths to present
cues that are not product-related before devoting only a few seconds to the product itself at the
end.
To American advertisers, this advertising approach is ambiguous and puzzling. The
lecture approach is inferior to the drama approach for such high-context cultures as Japan. In
many parts of the world, peoples are very aware of their social classes and status. The social
standings affect how the message is conveyed and interpreted. There is an emphasis on
interpersonal relationships between communicators, nonverbal expression, physical setting, and
social circumstances. The lecture alone is thus inadequate because it is not capable of carrying all
the meanings. As a result, additional cues, although not necessarily product related, must be
presented so that the audience will understand the target market of the product and the appeal of
the product. The drama is therefore more effective in sending the additional message as related to

the message sender's and the receiver's values, position, background, and social circumstances.
For example, a print advertisement or commercial which shows a young girl kneeling while
talking with another person implies that she is a servant--someone of lower status. The drama
approach is high-context in the sense that the product is shown in its natural settings. As a result,
there are opportunities to present contextual cues. An advertisement showing a luxury car by
itself (or even the owner with it) is not capable of conveying the meaning of luxury unless such
additional cues as a uniformed chauffeur are brought in. In high-context cultures, owners of
luxury cars rarely, if ever, drive their own cars. The Japanese pay attention to nuances and tone
(i.e., the music and scenery and how people act). These contextual cues are too subtle for those
of the low-context cultures to understand because these cues do not get to the point. Although the
day-after recall method is appropriate in measuring advertising effectiveness in low-context
research, the attitude-change measurement is more appropriate for high-context advertising
studies.
9. What are the stereotypes of the following groups: Arabs, Asians, Africans, and Latin
Americans? Why is it undesirable to use stereotyping as a basis to understand foreigners? Also
identify the positive traits and values of the groups mentioned above. This discussion assignment
is based on: Carol J. Fouke, “Sensitivity to Cultures Builds Foreign Markets,” Marketing News,
19 June 1989, 8-9.
The stereotypes of Arabs include: terrorist, sheik, harem, revenge, and torture. The
stereotypes of Asians include: geishas, being submissive, gangsters, Samurai, pigtailed
“Chinamen,” snake-charmers, turbaned Indians, and enemy. The stereotypes of Africans include:
pygmies, cannibals, and savages. The stereotypes of Latin Americans include: being dirty, being
lazy, and the character in sombrero reposing against a basket or cactus. It is undesirable to use

stereotyping to characterize foreigners and minority groups. Some feel that stereotyping is a lazy
way to learn about the others since it assumes that all members of the same group (e.g., women,
Asians, etc.) are all alike. On the other hand, it is necessary to point out that some type of
generalization and stereotyping is often a necessity if learning is to be facilitated. The world will
be a chaotic place if a person has to learn from scratch about each new person, object, or event.
Both generalization and discrimination are needed.
This discussion assignment is a good way to get students to become culturally sensitive
and examine their own biases and prejudices. The goal is to prevent a student from making as
weeping generalization. Instead, everyone will be better off if the focus is on the cultural values
that are stressed by a certain target group. Marketers should use values on which Arab cultures
place a high value. These values include: hospitality, personal dignity, continuity, stability, and
psychological and emotional strength.
The traits valued by Asians include: sense of obligation and loyalty, strong work ethic,
oneness with nature, modesty, harmony with others and with the universe, transcendence, and
human dignity. In the case of Africans, they value: story-telling and the oral tradition, continuity,
respect for elders, memory, and oneness with nature, interdependence, community, cooperation,
and harmony. The values emphasized by Latin Americans include: survivability under adversity,
patience, interdependence, and cooperation.
10. What are some of the unique characteristics of the U.S. culture? What are some of the unique
business characteristics of the Japanese culture?
American culture has several distinctive characteristics. It is: (1) materialistic, (2)
individualistic, (3) achievement- oriented, (4) time-oriented, (5) youth-oriented, and (6) practical
and efficient. Some general characteristics of the Japanese culture are: (1) permanent and

irrevocable membership, (2) recruitment and selection based on personal qualities, (3) status
acquired based on an extension of the person's status in the society, (4) compensation including
non monetary benefits and based on broad social criteria, (5) corporate responsibilities extended
to employees' non business activities, (6) job responsibility and authority not being well-defined,
(7) decision-making style of risk minimization and confrontation avoidance, and (8) prevalent
sexual discrimination.11
THE SEVEN ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
· Creates social structure by organizing its members into small units to meet basic needs.
· Family Patterns: family is the most important unit of social organization. Through the family
children learn how they are expected to act and what to believe.
· Nuclear family: wife, husband, children. This is a typical family in an industrial society (US).
· Extended family: Several generations living in one household, working and living together:
grandparents, aunts and uncles, cousins. Respect for elders is strong.
· Social classes: rank people in order of status, depending on what is important to the culture
(money, job, education, ancestry, etc.)
CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS
· Rules of Behavior are enforced ideas of right and wrong. They can be customs, traditions, rules,
or written laws.
RELIGION
· Answers basic questions about the meaning of life.
· Supports values that groups of people feel are important.
11 ht tp://www.ocs.cnyric.org/webpages/phyland/global_10.cfm?subpage=19595

· Religion is often a source of conflict between cultures.
· Monotheism is a belief in one god.
· Polytheism is a belief in many gods.
· Atheism is a belief in no gods.
LANGUAGE
· Language is the cornerstone of culture.
· All cultures have a spoken language (even if there are no developed forms of writing).
· People who speak the same language often share the same culture.
Many societies include a large number of people who speak different languages.
· Each language can have several different dialects.
RTS AND LITERATURE
· They are the products of the human imagination.
· They help us pass on the culture’s basic beliefs.
· Examples: art, music, literature, and folk tales
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
· People form governments to provide for their common needs, keep order within society, and
protect their society from outside threats.
· Definition of government:
1. Person/people who hold
Power in a society;
2 Society’s laws and political institutions.
· Democracy: people have supreme power, government acts by and with consent.
· Republic: people choose leaders who represent them.

· Dictatorship: ruler/group holds power by force usually relying on military support for power.
ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
· How people use limited resources to satisfy their wants and needs.
· Answers the basic questions: what to produce, how to produce it, and for whom.
· Traditional Economy: people produce most of what they need to survive (hunting, gathering,
farming, herding cattle, make own clothes/tools).
· Market Economy: buying and selling goods and services
· Command Economy: Government controls what/how goods are produced and what they cost.
Individuals have little economic power
· Mixed Economy: Individuals make some economic decisions and the government makes
others.12
C. FILIPINO VALUES
A.PAST VS.PRESENT
One of the major activities of the analytic philosophical tradition is the clarification of the
meanings of words, phrases, and sentences. I presume from the title of my paper—“Filipino
philosophy: Past and present”— that we understand what are meant by the words “past” and
“present.” So I will precede with the phrase “Filipino philosophy” and attempt to clarify its
meaning, for it will be useless for us to go on talking about the historical development of Filipino
philosophy unless we are clear as to its meaning. There are two terms here to analyze: “Filipino”
and “philosophy.” And there are many questions to ask:
(1) What or who is a Filipino? (2) What is the meaning of “philosophy”? (3) How can we
determine whether a particular kind of thinking is philosophical or not? (4) How do we know
12 ht tp://www.ocs.cnyric.org/webpages/phyland/global_10.cfm?subpage=19595

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