1. why do we study the history of art
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Chapter 1: Why Do We Study the History of Art
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- 1. Fine Arts Visual- ART 2503 Why Do We Study the History of Art?
- 2. Interpreting Art • Biographical • Autobiographical • Religious/Spiritual • The Landscape • Environmental/Ecological • Historical • Psychological • Nationalistic/Political • Propaganda • Economical • Hierarchical • Social Classes • Race/Stereotypes • Memorial/Funerary • Gender and Sexuality • And so on….
- 3. John Heartfield, Hurrah, die Butter ist Alle! (Hurray, the Butter is All Gone!), 1935 Semiotics is the study of signs and sign processes ,indication, designation, likeness, analogy, metaphor, symbolism, signification, and communication. Semiotics Claes Oldenburg, Free, 1982
- 4. Word and Image René Magritte, The Treachery (or Perfidy) of Images, 1928-9, oil on canvas
- 5. Word and Image The Philosophy of Language – Art as Idea as Idea Joseph Kosuth, One and Three Hammers (English Version), 1965, hammer, photograph of a hammer, photostat of the definition of hammer, 24 x 53 3/8”
- 6. Funerary Mask of Tutankhamun, Dynasty 18, circa 1327 BCE Death mask, Mycenae, Late Helladic 1450-1200 BCE Memorial/Funerary
- 7. Memorial/Funerary Terracotta sculpture depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China. It is a form of funerary art buried with the emperor in 210–209 BC and whose purpose was to protect the emperor in his afterlife. There are roughly 8,000 terracotta soldiers and horses varying in size, pose and uniform.
- 8. Biographical/Autobiographical Thomas Smith, Self Portrait circa 1680 Left: John Singer Sargent, Madame X, 1884 Right: Thomas Smith, Self-Portrait, 1680
- 9. Kehinde Wiley, Le Roi a la chasse,2006Anthony van Dyck , Charles the I at Hunt (Le Roi a la chasse), circa 1635 Appropriation
- 11. Religious/Spiritual Gian Lorenzo Bernini, St. Peter's Baldachin, St. Peter’s Basilica, Vatican City, 1623-34
- 12. Iconoclasm
- 13. Iconoclasm Destruction of one of the Buddhas of Bamiyan, Afghanistan
- 14. Iconoclasm
- 15. The Landscape George Inness, The Lackawanna Valley, 1855
- 16. George Inness, The Valley on a Gloomy Day, 1892 The Landscape
- 17. Personal Home Biospheres, Vaughn Bell 2004 Environmental/Ecological
- 18. Mark Dion, Library for the Birds of Massachussetts, 2005 Environmental/Ecological
- 19. Nationalistic/Political Augustus of Prima Porta, marble, 1st Century BCE Displays standard representation of gods or heroes in classical iconography
- 20. Nationalistic/Political Charles Willson Peale, George Washington at Battle of Princeton, 1784 Gilbert Stuart, George Washington, 1796
- 21. Propaganda Norman Rockwell, Rosie the Riveter, 1943
- 22. War Posters
- 23. Psychological Vincent Van Gogh, Self-Portrait, 1889
- 24. Psychological Frida Kahlo, The Two Fridas, 1939Frida Kahlo, The Broken Column, 1944
- 25. Psychological Francis Bacon, Figure With Meat, 1954 Salvador Dali, Soft Construction with Boiled Beans (Premonition of Civil War), 1936
- 26. States of Consciousness and Concentration A Reading, Thomas Wilmer Dewing, 1897
- 27. Economical Kathe Kollwitz, The Survivors, 1923Charles Knoll, Panic of 1869, 1869
- 28. Class Society and Class Struggle William Orpen , The Wash HouseHyacinthe Rigaud, Louis XIV, 1701
- 29. Hierarchical Proportion Maestà of Duccio, Siena, Italy, 1308 – 1311 The Narmer Palette, Early Dynastic Period of Egypt, c. 31st century BC
- 30. Race/Stereotypes Henry Tanner, The Banjo Lesson, 1893 Currier and Ives American Printmaking Firm, 1892
- 31. Race/Stereotypes Kerry James Marshall, Untitled, 2009
- 32. Race/Stereotypes Shirin Neshat, Roja, 2012 John Vanderlyn, The Death of Jane McCrea, 1803
- 33. Figures of Resistance Jon Onye Lockard, "No More!,” 1967 Yolanda Lopez, 1978, poster
- 34. Gender and Sexuality Jeong Mee Yoon, The Pink and Blue Projects, 2014
- 35. Gender and Sexuality Robert Mapplethorpe, Brian Ridley and Lyle Heeter, 1979 Mickalene Thomas, Sleep: Deux Femmes Noires , 2012
- 36. Gender and Sexuality Sleeping Hermaphrodite. C.200 BCE
- 37. The Female Nude and the Male Gaze Titian , Venus of Urbino, 1538
- 38. The Female Nude and the Male Gaze Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, La Grande Odalisque, 1814
- 39. Feminism Tatyana Fazlalizadeh, Stop Telling Women to Smile (series), 2012 Judy Chicago, The Dinner Party, 1974-79
Notas del editor
- Because the course is very expansive, we will be covering work ranging from cave paintings to the birth of contemporary art. It is always important to research what is happening historically, politically and socially when you are interpreting different works of art. Not only does it help guide you through the works, the background history is often how we interpret most art from the past. Unless the artist has given very specific details or artist statements regarding their work, we are left to interpret many works for ourselves. Whether or not these interpretations match the artist’s intentions is not always relevant, mainly because our interpretations evolve as we continue to build history.
- A common misconception about art is that its primary purpose is to be visually pleasing to the viewer. Although there is some truth to that statement depending on the time period, art is incredibly expansive and must be interpreted beyond superficial measures. Throughout history, art has been used as a tool to document the human experience (almost like taking a snapshot of a specific moment), individuals, politics, religious beliefs, social structures, racial relations, gender, class structures, etc. Art can range from personal to the public, and is in constant transition as the world continues to change. Many artworks have been placed in categories and subcategories to clarify some of the major themes we will discuss in this course. The goal is to discuss works of art in a historical and cultural context. Not only does this give the artworks more depth, it allows us to understand the artworks beyond our initial interpretations. Art is also subjective, and individuals interpret art in different ways. Viewing art is a sensory experience, and we interact with it on a very physical level (ex: scale of the object to the individual, smell, texture, color, etc.). We also interact with it on an intellectual level (ex: we attempt to interpret art using symbols, metaphors, identification, description, etc.)
- Artists utilize different techniques to convey messages to the viewer. Semiotics is the study of signs and sign processes ,indication, designation, likeness, analogy, metaphor, symbolism, signification, and communication. In effect, images or objects are understood as being dynamic. Essentially, the significance of images or objects is not understood as a one-way process from image or object to the individual. Instead, they are a result of complex inter-relationships between the individual, the image or object and other factors such as culture and society. Semiotics shows how the relationship between the sign and the ‘object or other’ results from what our society has taught us. For example, the image of the swastika can have radically different meanings depending on where and how it is viewed. Claes Oldenburg’s “Free” is an example of how an object and text are utilized in conveying a very public message using semiotics. The artist is known for increasing the size of everyday objects into monumental sculptures. The work was commissioned by Standard Oil of Ohio in 1985 for display at its headquarters building in the public square in Willard Park. The final sculpture was controversial for its use of text and underlying context. Some interpreted that the sculpture mocked the corporation, and believed that it referenced loss of corporate freedom and the lack of freedom in office work. It was placed in storage for years before it was seen by the public again. The use of text and this everyday object raises many questions about how the artistic object may be interpreted. For example, when placed in the context of United States history, the stamp may represent social inequality and slavery. Who may use this stamp and what larger context is it referencing? John Heartfield’s “Hurrah, die Butter ist Alle!” is also another example of symbolism and metaphors used to convey multiple messages about political and social changes, war, poverty and economics prior to World War II. Heartfield’s anti-fascist imagery is directly influenced by political and economic changes at the time. This 1935 photomontage is a parody of a speech by Hermann Göring, a quote from which is included at the bottom of the image. It reads: “Ore has always made an empire strong, butter and lard have made a country fat at most.” In this case, we see a depiction of a family’s blind loyalty to the Fueher as they are left with nothing but metal to eat during food shortages.
- Word and image are playfully used in Magritte’s “The Treachery of Images”. Below the painting of the pipe, the text states, “This is not a pipe”. The image is used to remind the viewer that this is, in fact, a painting of a pipe. The painting is used to question the nature of art and remind the viewer of the falsehood of illusionary painting techniques.
- Conceptual artists used language, performance, and instructions to fuel creativity, and sought alternatives to institutional settings. Language was an important tool for Conceptual artists in the 1960s. Many of these artists used language in place of brush and canvas, and words played a primary role in their emphasis on ideas over visual forms. Kosuth’s work examines how visual language and text can convey different meanings to the viewer. Everyone has a different, though often related, visual association with a word or concept, even when we share a common language. Which one of these objects is more “truthful” or important? In this work, he displays three different representations of a hammer: A photocopy/reproduction of a hammer A physical hammer tool mounted to the wall A definition of a hammer from the dictionary
- The creation of art works can literally be inspired from anything, which makes defining art a difficult task. Creating art means documenting history on some level, whether or not the artist intended for this. With this comes preservation of memory even after the artist’s death. Some artist’s intention derives from this very idea. For example, the Mycenaeans made gold death masks of their kings and wealthy individuals. The masks are individualized, suggesting that these were portraits of important or wealthy people in their society. In ancient Egypt, a pharaoh’s features were painted on the outside of his mummy case so that his ka (soul), could recognize him. Ancient Egyptians believed that the death of one’s physical form was not the end to their life but, rather a temporary interruption to the eternal life of their spirit. This belief in the rebirth after death was the reason Egyptians spent so much time on the preparation for the afterlife and also why the funeral practices of the pharaoh were so elaborate.
- The Terracotta Army or the "Terracotta Warriors and Horses", is a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China. It is a form of funerary art buried with the emperor in his afterlife. It was discovered in 1974 and it prompted Chinese archaeologists to investigate the area. They unearthed the largest pottery figurine group ever found in China. There are roughly 8,000 terracotta soldiers and horses varying in size, pose and uniform.
- Biographical art usually consisted of portraits of political leaders, wealthy and important individuals in different societies, and individual commissioned portraits. However, anyone can be selected as a “sitter” for a portrait. Artists also make self-portraits, which are likenesses of them and are often autobiographical accounts of the artist and their experiences. Thomas Smith’s “Self-Portrait” not only culminates his life experiences using symbolism and metaphors, but it also documents Puritan religious beliefs and their interest in the afterlife. This painting is the only seventeenth-century New England portrait by an identified artist, and it is the earliest American self-portrait.
- Portraits and self-portraits are also referenced in contemporary art. Many contemporary artists use “appropriation” by referencing famous works in art history and placing them in a new setting. For example: “Charles I at the Hunt” is one of Anthony van Dyck's most famous paintings and it demonstrates his ability to create a natural air about the sitter, using the method of iconography. Charles rests one hand upon a cane and the other on his side. He is pictured as an average citizen in this work, although his attire and pose make it clear that he is a man of high regard and status. The King wanted to appear aristocratic but also show a more human side as he embraces the activity of hunting. In contrast, contemporary artist Kehinde Wiley often chooses his subjects, usually young African American men, at random and then portrays them in highly theatrical ways. Wiley questions the conventions of portraiture and how they convey authority and status upon their subjects. His work may be interpreted in many different ways, mainly because the work is multi-layered. An individual can interpret the work based on depictions of power, race, fashion, the history of social inequality, and the wide range of different cultures in the United States.
- In many way, art history cannot be understood without studying the development of religious and spiritual practices in Western Europe. This class will briefly discuss religious practices and how they give art historians insight into the symbolism and metaphors seen in artworks and architecture.
- The History of Western Art will also focus on how the development of art and architecture is also influenced by political changes, social changes, and religious conflicts.
- Because of conflicts between religious and spiritual beliefs, many works of art and architecture have been intentionally damaged or destroyed. Iconoclasm refers to the destruction of images or hostility toward visual representations in general. “Iconoclasm is frequently a component of major domestic political or religious changes. Iconoclasm is the belief that there should not be religious pictures or sacred images or religious monuments because they are seen as a form of idolatry.” Read more: http://www.gotquestions.org/iconoclasm.html#ixzz3G3vIN91m
- The destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan is another example of iconoclasm. This monumental Buddha was destroyed in 2001 using dynamite. All that remains is a shell of two monumental Buddhas that had stood for 1,500 years. There is currently an effort to rebuild these enormous works.
- Iconoclasm isn’t just seen in reference to religious iconography. Iconoclasm may occur at any time throughout the world. For example, the toppling Saddam Hussein monument is a familiar sign of political dissent and regime change around the world. Overthrowing the symbols of dictators and governments are one form of iconoclasm, or image breaking, but the term itself refers to a huge range of targets and methods.
- The landscape is also continuously changing based on physical changes, social changes, war, industry, technology, human interaction, and so on…The landscape may be used to symbolize anything that the artist is interested in communicating to the viewer. For example: “The Lackawanna Valley” is a 19th century painting by George Inness. Although it was initially commissioned as an homage to the Industrial Revolution and the development of the railroad, Inness' “Lackawanna Valley” also serves as a pictorial reminder of the transient nature of the American Dream. In addition, we are given reminders of man’s interaction with the landscape. For example, we see many tree stumps surrounding an anonymous figure overlooking the railroad. During this time, artists were using this imagery as a metaphor for Manifest Destiny, the widely held belief in the United States that American settlers were destined to expand throughout the continent.
- Landscape artists also employ the landscape as a metaphor for human emotion. Although this is the same artist that created the “Lackawanna Valley”, we see a radically different interpretation of the landscape. This painting was developed after the American Civil War. During the war, Inness and other artists were commissioned to document the war, often working near the front lines. Many of these artists were deeply affected by the war, and some radically changed their artistic styles and content of their work. Additionally, the “purity” and “newness” of the American landscape radically changed after the overwhelming death toll and destruction of the Civil War. In many ways, “The Valley on a Gloomy Day” still references the ever-changing landscape. We see a landscape infused with human emotion, and murky colors that associate with moods like sadness, depression and melancholy. The artist created a technique known as “tonalism”. As a follower of the mystic Emmanuel Swedenborg, Inness believed that the material world constituted a gateway to a deeper spiritual truth.
- We also see references to environmental and ecological changes in contemporary works of art. “Personal Home Biospheres” creates an alternate environment for individuals living in major cities with few trees. According to Bell, “Many people long for the smells of nature and softness of greenery while living amidst concrete and diesel fumes. The… Personal Home Biosphere [is] the answer for anyone who feels the ill effects of urban living.”
- Additionally, artist like Mark Dion reference the history of science and natural history in contemporary art. In this piece, Dion surrounded a maple tree with a collection of science and natural history books, hunting equipment, framed photographs, bird feeders, and hanging nets. The aviary included Zebra finches, and visitors could walk inside the steel aviary. This allowed viewers to become a part of the installation itself. Dion examines the ways in which public institutions shape our understanding of history, knowledge, and the natural world. The installation is meant for us to question our own foundation of knowledge or how we collect and assemble pieces of information in our own heads. Additionally, it expands the concept of accepted art gallery pieces, and allows us to question the nature of the way that animals are publicly displayed in zoos and other containment settings.
- Throughout history, art and architecture is used to convey messages of military dominance, political power, and authority. “Augustus of Prima Porta” is a great example of how symbols/metaphors are used to convey messages to the public. You have to imagine that most of the public was illiterate. Instead of relying on textual literacy, messages were represented using visual literacy. Augustus was the 1st Roman emperor. Not only did he become an important political and military leader, and brings peace to the provinces, he also became empire’s highest religious official. Augustus led the empire for nearly 60 years, using efficient but bloody rule which created an extended period of stability, peace, and economic prosperity. The sculpture of Augustus is essentially Imperial portraiture of propaganda. The sculpture stands 6’8” and it is larger than life that combined this with the pose and ideal proportions developed by Greek sculpture. Additionally the entire breastplate of his military uniform becomes and allegory for his experiences. Sometimes it is easiest to describe it as a visual resume documenting all of his accomplishments. The sculpture includes other not so subtle symbols of the power of Augustus.
- We also see how nationalistic/political portrait is used to similarly convey messages of military dominance, political power, and authority in the United States. After the Revolutionary War, the American colonies were in chaos. To unify the colonies, artists like Gilbert Stuart (the official portrait artist for George Washington) and Charles Willson Peale created political portraits for the first president. Stuart’s incomplete painting of Washington soon became the official portrait that we see on the one dollar bill, and it was quickly reproduced and placed in public institutions, homes, schools, etc. The mass produced political portrait was used as a tool to unify the nation under the first president.
- War Posters and Propaganda posters are an extension of political art. For example, during WWII the objectives of the U.S. government for the propaganda campaign were recruitment, financing the war effort, unifying the public behind the war effort and eliminating dissent of all kinds, resource conservation, and factory production of war materials. In many cases, especially with WWII propaganda posters, we see the reliance of stereotypes and the demonization of the “other”. The goal is to only see one perspective of the war and create a direct, clear message to the viewer. The most common types of propaganda used involved fear, name-calling, euphemisms, and stereotypes.
- “The most common themes found in the posters were the consequences of careless talk, conservation, civil defense, war bonds, victory gardens, “women power”, and anti-German and Japanese scenarios. It was imperative to have the American people behind the war effort.” For more information : http://www.nationalww2museum.org/learn/education/for-students/ww2-history/at-a-glance/propaganda-posters.html
- Art can also be psychological, and virtually any emotion may be conveyed in artworks. Vincent Van Gogh’s work is often placed in the category of psychological art based on his own biography and history of mental illness.
- Other artists, such as Frida Kahlo, use symbolism and metaphors to create psychological and very personal works of art. At one point in her career, Kahlo was in a unstable marriage with the famous Mexican artist Diego Rivera. Rivera was known for his infidelity, and they eventually divorced. Their relationship became the inspiration of works such as “The Two Fridas”. Additionally, she suffered lifelong health problems, many caused by a bus accident she survived as a teenager. Her injuries caused her to suffer from intense pain for the majority of her life. Works like “The Broken Column” reference Frida's continuous agony. The pain is communicated in very physical way, including nails stuck into her face and flesh and by a split in her torso. The not so subtle symbolism allows the viewer some insight into her pain.
- Other artistic movements, such as Surrealism, conveyed psychological messages through a variety of artworks. Surrealism is a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s. The aim was to "resolve the previously contradictory conditions of dream and reality." Artists painted unnerving, illogical scenes with photographic precision. They also created strange creatures from everyday objects and developed painting techniques that allowed the unconscious to express itself. Other artists, such as Francis Bacon, create images that appear deeply rooted in psychology and the mind.
- Other artists believed in creating works that referenced states of consciousness and concentration. The artworks were influenced by the popular idea that intense concentration, such as reading and playing musical instruments, lead to an enlightened mind. These works often display haziness and muted colors, referencing an individuals elevation to another plane of existence.
- Artworks may also be used to comment on economic changes and socioeconomic status. For example, Americans living comfortably in the middle or upper classes, such as the couple portrayed in Charles Knoll’s painting, found themselves caught in the stock market crash of 1869. The emotional turmoil is emphasized by the twisted and illogical perspectives of the paintings on the wall. Other artists, such as Kathe Kollwitz, were committed to the causes of the working class and pursued social change through mediums like printmaking and drawing. Her work often references groups of individuals that are united through pain and suffering. These ideas were emphasized by images of poverty, war, and famine.
- The distinction between social classes are continuously changing throughout history. Many artworks intentionally reference social class by emphasizing the individual or “sitters” clothing, their domestic settings, objects within the frame, and so on.
- Hierarchical proportion is a technique used in art, in which the artist uses unnatural proportion or scale to depict the relative importance of the figures in the artwork. This is used quite often throughout ancient art, and it re-emerges in Christian art. Hierarchical proportion is a simple and straightforward method in conveying contrast between those of importance and the “other”. In these examples, we see how unnatural proportions of the figures create a focal point for these works of art.
- Race and stereotypes are often seen throughout art history. Racial stereotypes are often used to create contrasts between people having political, social, and economic power. For example, racial stereotype were mass produced and were once some of America’s most popular art. Printmaking firms, such as Currier and Ives, incorporated incredibly crude and generalized depictions of entire races of people into their works. Imagery, such as the banjo and watermelon, were used to solidify racial stereotypes and create a contrast between individuals of power and the “other” on every possible level. Individuals were depicted as animalistic or “needing to be tamed”, and were often represented merely as forms of entertainment (referencing minstrel/vaudeville shows). Many of these images were attempts at validating slavery and social inequality. Unfortunately, many of these 19th century images are disappearing from art history books and catalogs. Not only does this edit the history of the United States, but it makes it more difficult for future viewers to understand the context of these images. During this time, African American artists like Henry Tanner, created works that pushed past the boundaries of racial stereotypes. Works like “The Banjo Lesson” depict an intimate moment of a man teaching a young boy how to play a musical instrument. The painting displays a much more dignified representation of individuals without subjecting them to rudimentary and offensive labels.
- Contemporary artists, such as Kerry James Marshall, also reference racial stereotypes prevalent in today’s society. Marshall utilizes the same idea of contrasts in a very literal way. For example, many of his works display African Americans using pure black pigment. The goal of the work is to create the highest contrast between white and black pigment. In many ways, the works reference the way that people establish and categorize themselves based on skin tone. He also raises questions about what “black” really means by today’s standards. Other works by Marshall reference the lack of education of African art history, the categorization and segregation of African art/African American art in gallery settings and institutions, and the concept of “black” beauty based on standards in Western society.
- Racial and stereotypical imagery may be applied to any race at any time. Many artists utilize different artistic techniques to reference racial stereotypes in regions all over the world. For example, Shirin Neshat’s work references stereotypes of Middle Eastern culture that has been increasingly targeted over the years. Her work often displays women entirely overlaid by Persian calligraphy. The work of Neshat also addresses the social, political and psychological dimensions of women's experience in contemporary Islamic societies. Other examples, like John Vanderlyn’s painting, reference the Native American stereotype of the “noble savage”. The term noble savage is a stereotype that expresses the concept of an idealized outsider/other who has not been corrupted by civilization. Additionally, many Native Americans have been depicted as primitive, barbaric, and animalistic in nature. Again, all of these visual images were used as propaganda to elevate the status of individual or groups by comparing to themselves to the “other”.
- Because of the dominance of stereotypical and racial imagery in cultures throughout the world, many contemporary artists are creating works of art that directly reference racism. Artists, such as Jon Onye Lockard and Yolanda Lopez, develop confrontational and aggressive works of art to create a clear message to the viewer.
- Artists also reference how gender and sexuality change throughout history. Some artists question the importance of categorizing gender and sexuality, even when they are only facets of an individual’s identity. As society changes, the lines between being masculinity and femininity are being blurred by other subcategories of gender. Additionally, elements surrounding gender roles include clothing, speech patterns, movement, occupations, and other factors not limited to biological sex. Artists, such as Jeong Mee Yoon, also question how gender and sexuality are categorized and simplified in today’s society. Yoon’s statement includes: “The Pink and Blue Projects are the topic of my thesis. This project explores the trends in cultural preferences and the differences in the tastes of children (and their parents) from diverse cultures, ethnic groups as well as gender socialization and identity. The work also raises other issues, such as the relationship between gender and consumerism, urbanization, the globalization of consumerism and the new capitalism. “
- Additionally, artists also comment on how sexuality is often categorized and simplified. As you know, humans are incredibly complex and emotional beings. Many artists visually question the nature of categories, including heterosexuality, homosexuality and bisexuality. Works by artists, such as Robert Mapplethorpe, have been incredibly controversial to the public because of explicit representations of erotic practices, including underground bondage and sadomasochistic BDSM. Although controversial, these artworks pushed the envelope of representations of sexuality and allow insight into the complexity of human relationships, identity, and sexuality.
- There are also artists that reference grey areas between gender and sexuality. For example, the “Sleeping Hermaphrodite” is a Hellenistic Greek sculpture referencing the conflicting nature of these categories. The artist intentionally created the work to be viewed from every angle. Initially, the viewer would see a sleeping nude female. However, as the viewer walked around the work, they would understand the entire narrative of the piece.
- Throughout this course, we will view how the human figure and nudity is rendered. Most depictions of the female in paintings throughout history have been commissioned and painted by men for the pleasure of other men. In many cases, the nude female is created solely as an object of desire. These depictions refer to the ‘male gaze’, and will influence the development of Feminism and Feminist art.
- The female nude and reclined female are incredibly popular subjects in art history. The image of the female nude is typically inactive, traditionally reclining, or sometimes admiring her own image in a mirror. There is also quite a bit of discussion about “taste” in relation to the female nude. Although artists like Ingres are known for creating masterpieces containing the female nude, other artists like Edouard Manet were criticized for their “distasteful” depiction of the female nude in works like “Olympia”. Many erotic nude paintings were often commissioned for the pleasure of men, and these are intentionally pornographic in nature. You must imagine that this pre-dates erotic imagery found in contemporary society, included photographic images, magazines, and the Internet. Additionally each of these reclined nudes contain elements that may be interpreted in many ways. For example, Ingres’ “La Grande Odalisque” refers to eroticized Near Eastern motifs and culture. The artist borrowed the idea of an odalisque, a pampered woman of pleasure, living in the household of the sultan. While this may represent sensuous feminine beauty, her detached gaze, on the other hand, has been referred to as a physical representation of the depth of thought and complex emotions of a woman's thoughts and feelings.
- During the 1970’s, women artists, motivated by feminist theory, began a feminist art movement. Until the movement, it was often difficult for women to have their work represented by galleries and included in exhibitions. The feminist art movement grew out of the struggle to find a way to express sexual, material, social and political aspects of life and femininity in a new way. Female artists struggle, even today, to achieve the amount of success as their male counterparts.
- The Guerrilla Girls are an anonymous group of feminists and female artists devoted to fighting sexism and racism within the art world. Since the formation of the group, the Guerrilla Girls have witnessed positive changes within the art world. This includes an increased awareness of sexism, and more responsibility on the part of curators, art dealers, collectors and critics to ensure equal opportunity among artists. Additionally, the Guerrilla Girls developed the book, The Guerrilla Girls Bedside Companion to the History of Western Art. The book contains information about female artists omitted from many art history books. Although it is humorous in tone, the facts collected by the Guerrilla Girls exhibit the seriousness of women’s inequality even in today’s society.