2. General system theory, therefore, is a general
science of "wholeness...The meaning of the
somewhat mystical expression, "The whole is
more that the sum of its parts" is simply that
constitutive characteristics are not explainable
from the characteristics of the isolated parts.
The characteristics of the complex, therefore,
appear as "new" or "emergent"...
Ludwig von Bertalanffy, General Systems Theory

3. What are Systems?
A system is an abstract model which "explains"
some aspect of the world and rules for its
ELEMENTS
operation. Any object, boundary or relation that can
be articulated
BOUNDARIES
As you study system thinking and the history of Any idea that separates elements--for
example, different shapes, attributes or
the world views that have preceded it, it is time. Boundaries may also be defined by
attachment to a core idea, a generating
important to recognize that any description of a idea
thing, including a systems description, is a RELATIONS
Any idea that associates elements--for
mental construct invented for a particular example, same shape, sharing a boundary
reason or occasion. There are no systems out or an attribute, following from a prior
element or state
there. We project onto the world our own CAUSE
schemes for organizing our experience, though That which brings into being any aspect of
a system--for example, an idea, a
as members of cultures we use common models. boundary, a relation, a precedent
condition, a presence, an absence . . . .
If we examine any of these models thoughtfully
QUALITIES
we can see that, like any language, they are Characteristics of the whole which are
evident only at the level of the whole and
formed of parts and processes, rules and limits. are different from characteristics of the
parts or elements
The science of these relations is system theory.

4. General Characteristics of
Systems Thinking
1. Each part of an organization can only be understood in terms of its relation to the other
parts of the organization.
2. The parts of the organization, including their interrelatedness, are important insofar as they
contribute to the overall functioning of the organization.
3. Organizations, conceived as wholes, may be thought of metaphorically as biological
organisms, replete with needs or goals that are super-ordinate to and conceptually
separate from the conscious needs, purposes, and goals of individual parts or members.
4. These needs and goals of organizations may be conceived either statically (e.g. survival or
maintenance or order) or dynamically (e.g. in terms of purposive evolution or change).
5. Organizational activity of any significance is understandable in terms of its relation to the
external environment, which provides the resources and conditions on which the
organization depends for its survival or the realization of its purposes.

5. Clouds and Clocks
“There are lots of things, natural processes and natural
phenomena, which we may place between these two extremes -
the clouds on the left, and the clocks on the right. The changing
seasons are somewhat unreliable clocks, and may therefore be
put somewhere towards the right, though not too far. I suppose
we shall easily agree to put animals not too far from the clouds
on the left, and plants somewhat nearer to the clocks. Among the
animals, a young puppy will have to be placed further to the left
than an old dog. Motor cars, too, will find their place somewhere
in our arrangement, according to their reliability - Perhaps
furthest to the right should be placed the solar system.”
Karl Popper

6. Laszlo’s Nine Points of Contrast (1-4)
“Classical sciences" “The systems view of the world”
The worldview of the classical sciences The new systems sciences look at nature as an
conceptualized nature as a giant machine organism endowed with irreplaceable
composed of intricate but replaceable elements and an innate but non-deterministic
machine-like parts. purpose for choice, for flow, for spontaneity.
The classical worldview was atomistic and The systems view perceives connections and
individualistic; it view objects as separate from communications between people, and
their environments and people as separate between people and nature, and emphasizes
from each other and from their surroundings. community and integrity in both the natural
and the human world.
The classical worldview was materialistic, The systems view gives a new meaning to the
viewing all things as distinct and measurable notion of matter, as a configuration of
material entities. energies that flow and interact, and allows for
probabilistic process, for self-creativity, a well
as for unpredictability.
In its application to everyday affairs, the The new vision emphasizes the important of
classical worldview extolled the accumulation information and hence of education,
of material goods and promoted a power communication, and human services over the
hungry, compete-to-win ethos. accumulation of material goods and the
acquisition of raw power.

7. Laszlo’s Nine Points of Contrast (5-7)
“Classical sciences" “The systems view of the world”
The classical worldview saw growth in the The systems view, looking first of all to the
material sphere as the pinnacle of whole formed by social and economic
socioeconomic progress and promoted parts, insists on sustainable development
greater and greater use (and indirectly of through flexibility and accommodation
waste) of energies, raw materials, and among cooperative and interactive parts.
other resources.
The classical worldview was Eurocentric, The holistic vision takes in the diversity of
taking Western industrialized societies as human cultures and societies and sees all of
the paradigms of progress and them as equally valid, ranking them only in
development. regard to sustainability and the satisfaction
they provide for their members.
The classical worldview was also The systems view sees humans as organic
anthropocentric, perceiving human beings parts within a self-maintaining and self-
as mastering and controlling nature for evolving whole that is the context and the
their own ends. precondition of life on this planet.

8. Laszlo’s Nine Points of Contrast (8-9)
“Classical sciences" “The systems view of the world”
When the classical worldview was applied When the systemic vision inspires the
to social science, the dominant notions theories of social science, the values of
turned out to be struggle for survival, the competition are mitigated by those of
profit of the individual, with at best an cooperation, and the emphasis on
assumed automatic coincidence of individualistic work ethos is tempered with
individual and societal good (through Adam a tolerance of diversity and of
Smith's "invisible hand"). experimentation with institutions and
practices that foster man-man and man-
nature adaptation and harmony.
When the classical worldview was applied When the systems view is the basis of a
to medical science, the human body diagnosis the body is seen as a system of
appeared to be a machine frequently in interacting parts, and body and mind are
need of repair by factual and impersonal not separable. It is the health of the whole
interventions and treatments. The problems system that is to be maintained by attention
of the mind were seen to be separable from to psychic and interpersonal as much as to
those of the body and hence to be physical and physiological factors.
separately treated.

9. Fritjof Capra Summary on
Systems Thinking
1. A shift from the parts to the whole: Systems science shows that living systems
cannot be understood by analysis.
• It is useful to apply the same concepts to different systems levels
• In general, different systems levels represent different degrees of
complexity
• Contextual thinking: explanation by describing the environment
• A shift from objects to relationships: In the systems view we realize that
the objects themselves are networks of relationships, embedded in larger
networks. For the systems thinker the relationships are primary.
2. The ability to shift attention back and forth between systems levels
3. The metaphor of knowledge as a network of concepts and models in which
there are no foundations. The material universe is seen as a dynamic web of
interrelated events. None of the properties of any part of this web is
fundamental; they all follow from the properties of the other parts, and the
overall consistency of their interrelations determines the structure of the entire
web.

11. CHARACTERISTICS OF FIVE SYSTEM THEORIES
THEORY Structural Assumptions Cause Process Omissions
Classic An all-encompassing unity within Formal (fulfilling form; Labeling, No explanation of
which there is a clear hierarchy of because it is what it is) describing, why things change
ordered elements classifying
Final (teleological;
purportive)
Dynamic Distinct elements assembled as Efficient (cause-effect) Empirical-analytic No explanation of
(Scientific/ building blocks into larger, distinct Material (determined by intentionality, of
Mechanistic) wholes. Boundaries well defined. the composition of the "why" or for what
Performance of parts determines elements) purpose a thing
performance of whole exists
Communication Separate elements bound together Efficient Information Does not deal with
(Cybernetic) in systems which have a purpose; exchange; self-renewing quality
feedback adjusts and controls Final feedback for of living entities
performances; boundaries clear but control
must take into account bias
viewpoint of observer
Field Holistic; boundaries are not real but Formal (It is because it is) Entrainment Does not deal with
assumptions to help our (interaction of parts or
understanding. Everything is Entrainment (linking energy fields) individuation of the
connected and interdependent. through energy exchange) person
Force-field
analysis
Evolutionary Elements are identifiable but also Final ("enfolded") Transforming
may change (transform); change (Stability-chaos
generated from within; a system is Morphogenic (evolves transformation-
composed of hierarchy of from inherent sources) stability)
substructures; boundaries intrinsic, Mutual causality (loops not
not in observer's mind; systems are lines)
self-organizing, self-defining

12. "Process philosophy"
Alfred North Whitehead
Whitehead thought of individual entities as series of
moments of experience instead of as masses of
static substance. Within each moment, an entity is
influenced by others, creates its own identity and
propels itself into further experiences. Because of
the involvement of all moments of experience with
each other, Whitehead conceived of the entire
cosmos as an organic whole. Just as all the cells in
our bodies are interrelated, all elements of the
universe are interrelated. These relationships are not
all equal: a single skin cell on a person's toe does not
affect his or her life as much as does a nerve cell in
(1861–1947) the brain. Complex groups of cells, such as the
nervous system, have a greater influence on the
person than single cells.

13. “General Systems Theory"
Ludwig von Bertalanffy
Whitehead thought of individual entities as series of
moments of experience instead of as masses of
static substance. Within each moment, an entity is
influenced by others, creates its own identity and
propels itself into further experiences. Because of
the involvement of all moments of experience with
each other, Whitehead conceived of the entire
cosmos as an organic whole. Just as all the cells in
our bodies are interrelated, all elements of the
universe are interrelated. These relationships are not
all equal: a single skin cell on a person's toe does not
(1901-1972) affect his or her life as much as does a nerve cell in
the brain. Complex groups of cells, such as the
nervous system, have a greater influence on the
person than single cells.

14. “Cybernetics"
Norbert Weiner
A cybernetic system is one that learns on the basis of
feedback ("learning" and "feedback" are distinctive,
technical terms in cybernetics). In the paradigm case, a
system acts, observes the result of that action, compares
that result to some pre-determined criterion state, and
acts again in a way to move the system even closer to the
desired state.
(1894-1964)

15. “Second-Order Cybernetics"
Ilya Prigogine
In information theory and first-order cybernetics, positive
feedback was considered, respectively, uninformative or
destructive. However, in dissipative systems, positive
feedback loops are understood as a source of new order
and complexity as the system develops new patterns and
organizes itself.
(1917 - 2003)

16. “Chaos Theory"
Edward Lorenz
Chaos comes into focus when one shifts perspective. The shift
moves from thinking of systems as wholes, who's dynamic
involves maintaining or crossing boundaries (open vs. closed
systems) or cycles of acting - monitoring - interpreting feedback
- acting again (cybernetics) and to thinking of systems as
reproducing themselves in each new moment iteratively,
engaging in repeated actions following a set of rules. In this
perspective, the language of homeostasis and equilibrium are
set aside in favor of a vocabulary describing emerging patterns:
bifurcation points, attractors, fractals, etc.
(1917 - 2008)
1. Simple systems give rise to complex behavior.
2. Complex systems give rise to simple behavior.
3. The laws of complexity hold universally, regardless of the details of a system's
constituent atoms.

17. “Complex Adaptive System"
New England Complex Systems Institute
http://www.necsi.edu
Complex Systems is a new field of science
studying how parts of a system give rise to
the collective behaviors of the system, and
how the system interacts with its
environment.
1. Each complex adaptive system (CAS) is a network of many "agents" acting in parallel. “
2. A CAS has many levels of organization, with agents at any level serving as the building blocks
for agents at a higher level.
3. All CASs anticipate the future
4. CASs typically have many niches, each of which can be exploited by an agent adapted to fill
that niche. And, since the act of filling a niche opens up more niches, new opportunities are
always being created by the system. "And that, in turn, means that it's essentially
meaningless to talk about a complex adaptive system being in equilibrium: the system can
never get there. It is always unfolding, always in transition. In fact, if the system ever does
reach equilibrium, it isn't just stable. It's dead."