Cara Menggugurkan Sperma Yang Masuk Rahim Biyar Tidak Hamil
electronic circuit breaker report by saurabh chauhan
1. 1
A
Project Report
On
“ FAST WORKING ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT BREAKER”
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the
Requirement for the Degree of
Bachelors of Technology
In
Electrical Engineering
Under Supervision of
Er. Bhupendra Singh
(Lecturer)
Head of Department
Dr. D.C. Dhubkariya
(Associate Professor)
By
Saurabh Chauhan (1604320909)
Satyendra Yadav(1604320908)
Vikash Babu(1604320911)
Department of Electrical Engineering
Bundelkhand Institute of Engineering & Technology
Jhansi (U.P.) India-284128
Session 2018-2019
2. 2
BUNDELKHAND INSTITUTE
OF
ENGG &TECHNOLOGY
JHANSI
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that seminar reported titled “ FAST WPRKING ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT
BREAKER” has been successfully delivered by “Mr. SAURABH CHAUHAN (1604320909), Mr.
SATYENDRA YADAV (1604320908), Mr. VIKAS BABU (1604320911) (B.tech , final Year )” under
my guidance in fulfilment of Bachelor degree in electrical engg from BUNDELKHAND INSTITUTE
OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY,JHANSI during academic year 2018-2019.
Date:
Seminar Guide : Head of Department :
Er. Bhupendra Singh Dr. D.C.Dhubkariya
Electrical Engg. Deptt. Electrical Engg. Deptt.
3. 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my guide Er. Bhupendra Singh for his
invaluable guidance and steadfast support during the course of the seminar work. Fruitful and
rewarding discussions with him on numerous occasions have made this work possible. It has
been a great pleasure for me to work under his guidance.
I would like to thank Dr. D.C. Dhubkariya, Head of Department, Electrical engg, Department
for providing me such a great opportunity, chance to express the views and to overcome my
hesitation.
I would like to express my sincere thanks to all the faculty members of Electrical Engineering
Department for their kind co-operation.
I would like to acknowledge the assistance of all my friends in the process of completing this
work. Finally, I acknowledge my sincere gratitude to my family members for their constant
encouragement and support.
Saurabh chauhan(1604320909)
Satyndra Yadav(1604320908)
Vikas Babu(160432911)
Electrical Engineering
Final year
(2018-2019)
4. 4
ABSTRACT
FAST WORKING ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT BREAKER
The project is designed to shut down the power supply when it is overloaded. Conventional
circuit breaker like MCB based is on thermal bimetal lever trip mechanism. It is very slow and
the trip time is dependent upon the percentage of overload. This project senses the current
passing through a series element and the corresponding voltage drop is compared against the
preset voltage proportional to the current by a level comparator to generate an output for the load
to trip.The concept of electronic circuit breaker came into focus realizing that conventional
circuit breakers such as MCBs take longer time to trip. Therefore, for sensitive loads it is very
important to activate the tripping mechanism at the shortest possible time, preferably
instantaneously. This project is demonstrates fast tripping mechanism as against the slow one
like MCB. Electronic circuit breaker is based on the voltage drop across a series element
proportional to the load current, typically a low value resistor. This voltage is sensed and
rectified to DC which is and then compared with a preset voltage by a level comparator to
generate an output that drives a relay through a MOSFET to trip the load. The unit is extremely
fast and overcomes the drawback of the thermal type. For protection of sensitive load from short
circuit or over load cuThis paper is intended to fast protection of electric circuit from over load
and a short circuit rrent trip time of circuit should be very low and this can be achieved by ECB
(Electronic Circuit Breaker). At the time of short circuit, current flow through the series element
which has a low resistance that is sensed by ECB (Electronic Circuit Breaker). Then voltage drop
across series element and preset voltage are compared in level comparator, and according to
resultant value electronic circuit breaker work.
Further the project can be enhanced by using a CT for galvanic isolation between mains and
control circuit. Power electronic devices such as thyristors / IGBTs can be used for ultra fast
operation compared to all the methods.
Submitted by :- Under Guidance of :
Saurabh Chauhan (1604320909) Er. Bhupendra Singh
Satyendra Yadav (1604320908) Electrical Engg. Deptt
Vikas Babu (1604320911)
5. 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER.1
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 09
CHAPTER.2
COMPONENTS OF THE CIRCUIT BREAKER……………………………,……..…...10
CHAPTER.3
LM358IC………………………………………………………………….………...…......15
CHAPTER.4
7805 VOLTAGE REGULATOR………………………………………………………….17
CHAPTER.5
RELAY CIRCUIT SYSTEM……………………………………………………………..19
CHAPTER.6
STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER……………………………………………..…………...21
CHAPTER.7
POTENTIOMETER……………………………………………………….…………..….22
CHAPTER.8
TRANSISTER BC547……………………………..……..………….……………………24
CHAPTER.9
RECTIFIER SYSTEM…………………….……….……………………………………..26
CHAPTER.10
CONNECTING WIRES…………………………….…….………………………………28
CHAPTER.11
PCB………………………………...…………………….…………………………..…….29
9. 9
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
Voltage fluctuations have always been a problem and are responsible for most of the failure in
AC appliances. Be it a normal home appliance like a Toaster or a high performance industrial
machine like a CNC, everything has a rated voltage only on which it will run without any
problem at its maximum efficiency. Unfortunately our Domestic/Industrial Lines fails to provide
us that rated voltage due to various reasons, hence in this project we are going to build a simple
electronic circuit breaker which could trigger a relay to disconnect the load when a high/low
voltage detected.
This project is designed around the famous op-amp LM358. We are going to make the op-amp
work in Differential mode thus making it to compare the current voltage with a preset voltage.
The whole project can be built on a bread board (except the power lines) and could be made to
work in no time. So let us get started..... Voltage variations have always been a trouble and are
liable for most of the breakdown in AC appliances. Be it a usual home appliance such as a
Toaster or a high-performance industrial apparatus like a CNC; everything has a rated voltage
only on which it will run without any problem at its maximum efficiency. Unfortunately, our
Industrial Lines be unsuccessful to offer us that rated voltage due to a variety of reasons, hence
in this project we are going to make a simple electronic circuit breaker which could activate a
relay to detach the load when a high or low voltage detected.
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Circuit Diagram:-
The complete schematic diagram of electronic circuit breaker is given in the image below. Read
further for the explanation of the same.
Fig.2-Circuit diagram of ECB
Circuit Explanation:-
As shown above in circuit breaker schematic, it is really simple and just a bunch of resistors,
capacitors and other stuff. But what actually happens behind all these. How the values of the
components are selected and what is the role of them here?
I have tried to answer this question by breaking them into each segments and explaining them
below
Power relay system:-
The op-amp is the heart of this electronic circuit breaker diagram. We need a regulated 5V
supply to power this op-amp. Also we need to feed the current voltage (Voltage at any particular
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time) to the op-amp. The op-amp can handle only up to 5V since it is powered by 5V. Hence we
need to convert the Input AC voltage (220V AC) to 0-5V DC.
Fig.3- Power Relay System Of ECB
So the above circuit solves two purposes.
1. Provide a constant 5V for powering up the circuitry
2. Maps down the Input AC voltage to 0-5V for the op-amp
To achieve this we have used a 12V Step Down transformer which converts the 220V AC to 12V
AC then we rectify it with a diode bridge to 12V DC (Approx) and then regulate voltage to 5V
by using a 7805 Voltage regulator. Any changes in the input voltage will affect the value of
voltage in the output side of the diode bridge. Hence this voltage can be considered as the
“current voltage” of the AC mains. By using a 5.1K resistor and a 10K POT (forming a potential
divider) we have mapped the voltage between 0-5V.
Op-Amp Section:-
This section is the part where the comparison takes places. We have two subdivisions in the op-
amp section. One is used to compare the “current voltage” with High Voltage value and the other
is used to compare with Low voltage Value. Both the sections are shown in the image below.
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Fig.4: Op-Amp Section Of Ecb
The op-amp circuit shown above is the Differential mode of an Op-amp. Op-amp are really a
work horse for most of the electronics circuits, it has many mode of operation and applications
like Summing, subtracting, amplifying etc... We have used it as a voltage a comparator here.
So what is a voltage comparator and why do we need them here?A voltage comparator in our
case compares the voltage between the pins 3 and 2 and if the voltage on pin 3 is greater than pin
2 then the output at pin 1 gets high (3.6V) else the output will be 0V. We compare the “current
Voltage” with the preset High and Low voltage to get a high/low voltage trigger.In the circuit
shown above the low voltage threshold is set on pin 2 using the resistors 1K and 2K. The high
voltage threshold is set on the pins 5 using the 1K and 2.2K resistors.Using these resistors forms
a potential divider and provides a 3.33V of low voltage cut off and 3.43V as high Voltage cut-
off. This means that only if the “current voltage” is between 3.33V to 3.43V both the op-amps
will go high.
Note: I have set the threshold voltages at 3.33V and 3.43 Volt since my upper cut off was 230V
and lover cut-off was 220V. You can set them accordingly and then calibrate the circuit by using
the 10K pot to control the “current voltage”.
Relay system:-
This is the place where we attach the AC load. The relay is use to turn ON/OFF the AC load. As
discussed in the op-amp section. Both the op-amp will get high only if the voltage is in-between
the High and Low voltage cut-off limits. So we have to turn ON an AC load only if both the op-
amp’s outputs are high. Here the “Low Voltage Trigger” and “High Voltage Trigger” are the
output of the pin 1 and pin 7 respectively.
14. 14
Fig.5- Relay System Of ECB
Only if both are high, the Relay will get its ground and the will be triggered. The AC load (here a
Lamp) id connected through the relay. A resistor of 1K is used for current limiting. Once you
understand how the circuit works making it work will be not a problem. Simply wire up the
circuits and use the 10K pot to set our “current Voltage” between your “High Voltage Trigger”
and “Low Voltage Trigger”. Now if there is any change in the AC main Voltage either of your
op-amp will go low and your relay will turn off, thus turning off the Load connected to it.
15. 15
CHAPTER 3
LM358 IC OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
The IC or integrated circuit is a little black chip, it is a root of modern electronics, and also an
essential component in many electronic circuits. The applications of integrated circuits involve in
each and every electronic circuit board, embedded systems and various electronic projects. An
integrated circuit is a set of various electrical and electronic components like resistors,
capacitors, transistors. All these components are integrated onto a single chip. They are available
in various forms like 555 timers, single circuit logic gates, microprocessors,
microcontrollers, voltage regulators and op-amps like IC 741, LM324 IC, LM358 IC, LM339 IC
and many more. Please follow the below link to know more about the op-amps: Op-Amp IC pin
configuration, working and features.
Fig.6-LM358 Op-Amp
What is LM358 IC?
The LM358 IC is a great, low power and easy to use dual channel op-amp IC. It is designed and
introduced by national semiconductor. It consists of two internally frequency compensated, high
gain, independent op-amps. This IC is designed for specially to operate from a single power
supply over a wide range of voltages. The LM358 IC is available in a chip sized package
and applications of this op amp include conventional op-amp circuits, DC gain blocks and
transducer amplifiers. LM358 IC is a good, standard operational amplifier and it is suitable for
your needs. It can handle 3-32V DC supply & source up to 20mA per channel. This op-amp is
apt, if you want to operate two separate op-amps for a single power supply. It’s available in an 8-
pin DIP package.
Pin Configuration of LM358 IC
The pin diagram of LM358 IC comprises of 8 pins, where
Pin-1 and pin-8 are o/p of the comparator
Pin-2 and pin-6 are inverting i/ps
Pin-3 and pin-5 are non inverting i/ps
Pin-4 is GND terminal
Pin-8 is VCC+
16. 16
Fig.7-Pin Configuration Of LM358 IC
Features of LM358 IC:-
It consists of two op-amps internally and frequency compensated for unity gain.
The large voltage gain is 100 DB.
Wide bandwidth is 1MHz.
Range of wide power supplies includes single and dual power supplies.
Range of Single power supply is from 3V to 32V.
Range of dual power supplies is from + or -1.5V to + or -16V.
The supply current drain is very low, i.e., 500 μA.
2mV low i/p offset voltage.
Common mode i/p voltage range comprises ground.
The power supply voltage and differential i/p voltages are similar.
o/p voltage swing is large.
Applications of LM358 I
Dark Sensor Circuit.
Shock Alarm Circuit.
Advantages of LM358 IC:-
Two operational amplifiers are compensated internally.
Two internally compensated op amps.
Removes the necessity of dual supplies.
Permits direct sensing close to GND & VOUT.
Well-suited with all methods of logic.
Power drains appropriate for the operation of the battery.
17. 17
CHAPTER 4
7805 VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Voltage sources in a circuit may have fluctuations resulting in not providing fixed voltage
outputs. A voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. 7805 IC, a
member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage regulators used to maintain such fluctuations, is a
popular voltage regulator integrated circuit (IC). The xx in 78xx indicates the output voltage it
provides. 7805 IC provides +5 volts regulated power supply with provisions to add a heat sink.
Fig.8- Pin Diagram Of Voltage Regulator
Input voltage range 7V- 35V,Current rating Ic = 1A,Output voltage range VMax=5.2V ,VMin=4.8V
Pin Details of 7805 IC:-
Pin
No.
Pin Function Description
1 INPUT Input voltage (7V-35V)
In this pin of the IC positive
unregulated voltage is given in
regulation.
2 GROUND Ground (0V)
In this pin where the ground is given.
This pin is neutral for equally the input
and output.
3 OUTPUT Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V)
The output of the regulated 5V volt is
taken out at this pin of the IC regulator.
18. 18
As you may have noticed, there is a significant difference between the input voltage & the output
voltage of the voltage regulator. This difference between the input and output voltage is released
as heat. The greater the difference between the input and output voltage, more the heat generated.
If the regulator does not have a heat sink to dissipate this heat, it can get destroyed and
malfunction. Hence, it is advisable to limit the voltage to a maximum of 2-3 volts above the
output voltage. So, we now have 2 options. Either design your circuit so that the input voltage
going into the regulator is limited to 2-3 volts above the output regulated voltage or place an
appropriate heatsink, that can efficiently dissipate heat.
What to do with all the heat?
7805 is not very efficient and has drop-out voltage problems. A lot of energy is wasted in the
form of heat. If you are going to be using a heatsink, better calculate the heatsink size properly.
The below formula should help in determining appropriate heatsink size for such applications.
Heat generated = (input voltage – 5) x output current
19. 19
CHAPTER 5
RELAY CIRCUIT SYSTEM
Fig.9-Symbols Of Relay
Pin
Number
Pin Name Description
1 Coil End 1 Used to trigger(On/Off) the Relay, Normally one end is connected
to 5V and the other end to ground
2 Coil End 2 Used to trigger(On/Off) the Relay, Normally one end is connected
to 5V and the other end to ground
3 Common (COM) Common is connected to one End of the Load that is to be
controlled
4 Normally Close (NC) The other end of the load is either connected to NO or NC. If
connected to NC the load remains connected before trigger
5 Normally Open (NO) The other end of the load is either connected to NO or NC. If
connected to NO the load remains disconnected before trigger
20. 20
Features of 5-Pin 5V Relay:-
Trigger Voltage (Voltage across coil) : 5V DC
Trigger Current (Nominal current) : 70mA
Maximum AC load current: 10A @ 250/125V AC
Maximum DC load current: 10A @ 30/28V DC
Compact 5-pin configuration with plastic moulding
Operating time: 10msec Release time: 5msec
Maximum switching: 300 operating/minute (mechanically)
How to use a Relay:-
Relays are most commonly used switching device in electronics. Let us learn how to use one in
our circuits based on the requirement of our project.Before we proceed with the circuit to drive
the relay we have to consider two important parameter of the relay. Once is the Trigger Voltage,
this is the voltage required to turn on the relay that is to change the contact from Common->NC
to Common->NO. Our relay here has 5V trigger voltage, but you can also find relays of values
3V, 6V and even 12V so select one based on the available voltage in your project. The other
parameter is your Load Voltage & Current, this is the amount of voltage or current that the
NC,NO or Common terminal of the relay could withstand, in our case for DC it is maximum of
30V and 10A. Make sure the load you are using falls into this range.
Fig.10- Working Principle Of Relay
Applications of Relay:-
Commonly used in switching circuits.
For Home Automation projects to switch AC loads
To Control (On/Off) Heavy loads at a pre-determined time/condition
Used in safety circuits to disconnect the load from supply in event of failure
Used in Automobiles electronics for controlling indicators glass motors etc.
21. 21
CHAPTER 6
STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER
Step Down Transformer:-
A Step down Transformer is a type of transformer, which converts a high voltage at the primary
side to a low voltage at the secondary side.If we speak in terms of the coil windings, the primary
winding of a Step down Transformer has more turns than the secondary winding. The following
image shows a typical step down transformer.
Fig.11- Step Down Transformer 230/12 V
22. 22
CHAPTER 7
POTENTIOMETER
How to Use a Potentiometer:-
As far as we know resistors should always have two terminals but, why a potentiometer has three
terminals and how to we use these terminals. It is very easy to understand the purpose of these
terminals by looking at the diagram below.
Fig .12- working of potentiometer
The diagram shows the parts present inside a potentiometer. We have a resistive track whose
complete resistance will be equal to the rated resistance value of the POT.As the symbol suggests
a potentiometer is nothing but a resistor with one variable end. Let us assume a 10k
potentiometer, here if we measure the resistance between terminal 1 and terminal 3 we will get a
value of 10k because both the terminals are fixed ends of the potentiometer. Now, let us place
the wiper exactly at 25% from terminal 1 as shown above and if we measure the resistance
between 1 and 2 we will get 25% of 10k which is 2.5K and measuring across terminal 2 and 3
will give a resistance of 7.5K.So the terminals 1 and 2 or terminals 2 and 3 can be used to obtain
the variable resistance and the knob can be used to vary the resistance and set the required value.
Fig.13- Pin Of Potentiometer
23. 23
Potentiometer Pin Configuration:-
Pin No. Pin Name Description
1 Fixed End This end is connected to one end of the resistive track
2 Variable End This end is connected to the wiper, to provide variable voltage
3 Fixed End This end is connected to another end of the resistive track
Features:-
Type: Rotary a.k.a Radio POT
Available in different resistance values like 500Ω, 1K, 2K, 5K, 10K, 22K, 47K, 50K, 100K,
220K, 470K, 500K, 1 M.
Power Rating: 0.3W
Maximum Input Voltage: 200Vdc
Rotational Life: 2000K cycles
Applications:-
Voltage and Current Control Circuits
Used as volume control knobs in radios
Tuning or controlling circuits
Analog input control knobs
24. 24
CHAPTER 8
TRANSISTOR BC547
BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer of resistance, is
commonly used to amplify current. A small current at its base controls a larger current at
collector & emitter terminals.BC547 is mainly used for amplification and switching purposes. It
has a maximum current gain of 800. Its equivalent transistors are BC548 and BC549.The
transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of its
characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For amplification applications, the transistor
is biased such that it is partly on for all input conditions. The input signal at base is amplified and
taken at the emitter. BC547 is used in common emitter configuration for amplifiers. The voltage
divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For switching applications, transistor is biased so
that it remains fully on if there is a signal at its base. In the absence of base signal, it gets
completely off.
Fig .14- Transistor Bc 547
Transistor is a semiconductor device that can both conduct and insulate. A transistor can act as a
switch and an amplifier. It converts audio waves into electronic waves and resistor, controlling
electronic current. Transistors have very long life, smaller in size, can operate on lower voltage
supplies for greater safety and required no filament current. The first transistor was fabricated
with germanium. A transistor performs the same function as a vacuum tube triode, but using
25. 25
semiconductor junctions instead of heated electrodes in a vacuum chamber. It is the fundamental
building block of modern electronic devices and found everywhere in modern electronic
systems.
Transistor Basics:-
A transistor is a three terminal device. Namely,
Base: This is responsible for activating the transistor.
Collector: This is the positive lead.
Emitter: This is the negative lead.
Advantages of Transistor:-
1. Smaller mechanical sensitivity.
2. Lower cost and smaller in size, especially in small-signal circuits.
3. Low operating voltages for greater safety, lower costs and tighter clearances.
4. Extremely long life.
5. No power consumption by a cathode heater.
6. Fast switching.
26. 26
CHAPTER 9
FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit
above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four
individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop “bridge” configuration to produce the
desired output.The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special
centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is
connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.
Fig.14- Bridge Rectifier
The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes conducting
current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply,
diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current
flows through the load as shown below.
The Positive Half-cycle:-
Fig.15 The Positive Half-cycle
27. 27
During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but
diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the
load is the same direction as before.
The Negative Half-cycle:-
Fig.16- The Negative Half-cycle
As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the
load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore
the average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax.
The Smoothing Capacitor:-
We saw in the previous section that the single phase half-wave rectifier produces an output wave
every half cycle and that it was not practical to use this type of circuit to produce a steady DC
supply. The full-wave bridge rectifier however, gives us a greater mean DC value (0.637 Vmax)
with less superimposed ripple while the output waveform is twice that of the frequency of the
input supply frequency.
We can improve the average DC output of the rectifier while at the same time reducing the AC
variation of the rectified output by using smoothing capacitors to filter the output waveform.
Smoothing or reservoir capacitors connected in parallel with the load across the output of the full
wave bridge rectifier circuit increases the average DC output level even higher as the capacitor
acts like a storage device as shown below.
Fig.17- Smoothing Capacitor
28. 28
CHAPTER 10
CONNECTING WIRES
Connecting wires allows an electrical current to travel from one point on a circuit to another
because electricity needs a medium through which it can move. Most of the connecting wires are
made up of copper or aluminum. Copper is cheap and good conductivity. Instead of the
copper,we can also use silver which has high conductivitybut it is too costly to use.
Banana wire used for used to test cable
Crocodile wires mostly used for CRO
Wire used by multimeter
Fig.18- Fig Of Connecting Wires
29. 29
CHAPTER 11
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD INTRODUCTION & PCB TYPES
Printed Circuit Board:-Printed circuit boards (PCBs) are the boards that are used as the base in
most electronics – both as a physical support piece and as the wiring area for the surface-
mounted and socketed components. PCBs are most commonly made out of fiberglass, composite
epoxy, or another composite material.
Single-layer PCBs:-
A single-layer or single-sided PCB is one that is made out of a single layer of base material or
substrate. One side of the base material is coated with a thin layer of metal. Copper is the most
common coating due to how well it functions as an electrical conductor. Once the copper base
plating is applied, a protective solder mask is usually applied, followed by the last silk-screen to
mark out all of the elements on the board.
Fig.19- Single-Layer PCB
Double-layer PCBs:-
Double-layer or double-sided PCBs have a base material with a thin layer of conductive metal,
like copper, applied to both sides of the board. Holes drilled through the board allow circuits on
one side of the board to connect to circuits on the other.
30. 30
Fig.20- Double-Layer Pcbs
The circuits and components of a double-layer PCB board are usually connected in one of two
ways: either utilizing a through-hole or with the use of a surface-mount. A through-hole
connection means that small wires, known as leads, are fed through the holes, with each end of
the leads then soldered to the right component.Surface mount PCBs don't utilize wires as
connectors. Instead, many small leads are soldered directly to the board, meaning that the board
itself is used as a wiring surface for the different components.
Multi-layer PCBs:-
Multi-layer PCBs consist of a series of three or more double-layered PCBs. These boards are
then secured together with a specialized glue and sandwiched between pieces of insulation to
ensure that excess heat doesn't melt any of the components. Multi-layer PCBs come in a variety
of sizes, going as small as four layers or as large as ten or twelve. The largest multi-layer PCB
ever built was 50 layers thick.
Fig.21- Multi-Layer Pcbs
31. 31
. CHAPTER 12
ADVANTAGE OF ECB
They are quite expensive and more is the short circuit current, more is the cost of the MCB.
The bimetallic strip tends to be deformed easily due to heat or increase in temperature from
the surrounding causing a reduction in the breaker’s current capacity.
Because of mechanical components being used, they are more prone to wear and tear.
Tripping time is slower.
Fast working.
Compact in nature.
Less costly in comparision of others.
Less space required.
Less power consumption.
More reliability.
Neat and clean in nature.
32. 32
CHAPTER 13
LIMITATION
The voltage measured here is not Vrms voltage.
The value is also subjected to peaks and ripples
Your Load might experience a switching effect if the voltage drops/rises gradually (in
most cases it won’t).
Do not connect loads that consume current more than 5A. This will most likely kill
your relay and its driver.
More problems in design.
Skilled worker are require for make.
33. 33
CHAPTER 14
CONCLUSION
In this system instantaneous tripping of load takes place in case of overload condition. This
system has been a great advantage compared to the conventional circuit breakers with longer
tripping time. Time taken by the circuit breaker to break the circuit is approximately 0.023 sec.
This system is designed for the instantaneous tripping of breaker circuit in case of any
abnormalities like short circuit or overload condition. The proposed electronic circuit breaker is
economical with ultrafast tripping mechanism compared to slow acting thermal bimetallic
miniature circuit breakers. ECB's can be improved further by using advanced power electronic
devices like IGBTs, Thyristors for further more ultra fast operation. A current transformer can
also be used to separate.
34. 34
CHAPTER 15
REFERENCE
Book on “INTEGRATED CIRCUITS” By K. R. Botkar, Khanna Publishers, tenth
edition,2006.
“Express PCB tutorial” by LEE MOREY, issue date 1/02/2015.
“PCB Artist” issue date 18/09/2008
“An Introduction to keilmicrovision”, 10/03/2016.
R. K. Smith, P. G. Slade, M. Sarkozi, E. J. Stacey, J. J. Bonk, andH. Mehta, “Solid state
distribution current limiter and circuit breaker: application requirements and control
strategies,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 1155– 1164, 1993.
J. M. Meyer and A. Rufer, “A DC hybrid circuit breaker with ultra-fast contact opening
and integrated gate-commutated thyristors (IGCTs),” IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 646–651, 2006.
Book on “THE 8051 MICROCONTROLLER AND EMBEDDED SYSTEM” By
Muhammad Ali Mazidi, Janice Gillispiemazidi, Rolin D. McKinlay, Dorling
Kindersley(india) Pvt. Ltd., second impression 2008.
Book on “INTEGRATED CIRCUITS” By K. R. Botkar, Khanna Publishers, tenth
edition,2006.
“Express PCB tutorial” by LEE MOREY, issue date 1/02/2015.
“PCB Artist” issue date 18/09/2008
“An Introduction to keilmicrovision”, 10/03/2016.
