Creating Robust Environments for Online
Learning and Teaching:
Part A- Foundations
Scot Headley, George Fox University

A. Foundations for online learning and teaching include the
philosophical, psychological and theoretical bases for
developing and delivering effective online instruction.
B. Applications for online learning and teaching include the
technological, relational and instructional strategies and
techniques helpful for success in effective online instruction

Foundations in our consideration of online teaching and
learning:
Institutional and Instructional Considerations
Motivation for learning
Community of Inquiry
Instructional Design

Institutional and Instructional Considerations
Consider the following:
•Students protest seemingly inane institutional policies related to
institutional technology, library access and social media.
•Institutional Technology administrators faced with difficult
decisions regarding selection of supported applications.
•Faculty members who are asked to begin teaching online with no
appropriate rationale, prior background or preparation.
Each of these situations (and a myriad of others) creates
challenging tension and at times, unresolved difficulties in
university efforts at online education.

The Parallel Role and Functions Model provides explanation for
the competing and supporting interests, needs and outcomes
present in the delivery of online. This model puts forward the
notion that for each of the primary participants in university-
based online education; the institution, the faculty member and
the students, a pair of parallel roles exists.
These roles represent fundamental aspects of higher education
institutions, the bureaucratic element and the educational
element.

In this model, the university concurrently serves as a
facilitating medium for learning (the educational role) and as a
self-sustaining system (the bureaucratic role).
The faculty member serves as a guide for learning (the
educational role) while at the same time also performs her
role as an agent of the institution (a bureaucratic role).
The student, in this model, functions as both a learner
(educational role) and as a client of a corporate system (the
bureaucratic role).

This model seeks to explore and explain, for example, the
following:
a.institutional decision making regarding instructional delivery
schemes and policies and procedures associated with distance
education;
b.technological tools used and not used for online education;
c.faculty workload and faculty responsibilities in the online
education environment;
d.preparation of faculty and students to work online;
e.financial costs, investments and returns;
f.pedagogical assumptions, practices and outcome; and
g.relationships between faculty and administration, and faculty
and students in the online education milieu.

Educational roles and functions and bureaucratic roles and
functions often reflect differing values, needs and goals.
Consider applications such as academic freedom,
assessment, marketing, and faculty reward systems in light
of this model.
A key function of a bureaucratic system is to maintain itself.
A key function of an educational system is individual and
community growth.
The functions are not mutually exclusive, and do at times
compete with each other.
Instructors are not autonomous and work within a system
that requires commitments and investments that at times
appear to be counter-productive to the aim of
supporting growth.

Motivation for learning
My students are adults, are responsible, independent and are
volunteers in the learning enterprise.
Andragogy is “any intentional and professionally guided
activity that aims at a change in adult person” (Knowles, Holton
III, & Swanson, 2005, p. 60). One of the definitions of
adulthood is that adults are responsible for their own lives and
learning.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2005). The
adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and
human resource development (6th ed.). Burlington, MA:
Butterworth-Heinemann.

The foundational idea of andragogy is that adults learn differently
than children. Basic assumptions include:
(1) Adults need to understand why they should learn something;
(2) Adults recognize their personal responsibility for the outcome
of their life and operate in a self-directed manner as a result;
(3) Adults bring a depth and breadth of experiences to their
educational pursuits than do children;
(4) Adults pursue learning when faced with life circumstances not
previously encountered;
(5) Adults' approach to learning is centered around specific tasks
or challenges; and
(6) Adults are primarily motivated to learn by internal drivers such
as self-worth

Assumptions of Pedagogy and Andragogy
Pedagogical model Variable Andragogical model
Learn to “pass the course” The Need to Know Learner needs to know why
Dependent personality Learner's Self-concept Personal responsibility to learn
Of little worth Learner's Experience Quality of experience
What is needed to pass Readiness to Learn Relevance and applicability
Subject-oriented Orientation to Learning Life and problem-centered
External motivation Motivation Internal motivation

Characteristics exhibited by adults related to motivation for
learning (Wlodkowski)
Relevance is the ultimate criteria for sustaining adult interest.
Are critical and self-assured about their judgment of the value
of what they are learning.
Are reluctant to learn what they cannot endorse by the virtue
of its value, usefulness, or contribution to their goals
Require respect from their teachers as a condition for learning.
To want to actively test what they are learning in real work and
life settings.
Desire to use their experience and prior learning as
consciously and as directly as possible while learning
Desire to integrate new learning with their life roles

Motivational Framework for Culturally Responsive
Teaching
Four strategies, or conditions to establish motivated learning.
Wlodkowski, R. J. (2008). Enhancing adult motivation to learn.
A comprehensive guide for teaching adults (third ed.). San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Establishing Inclusion
Developing Attitude
Enhancing Meaning
Engender competence

Establishing inclusion:
Description: Adult learners and teachers desire to feel they
are a part of the learning environment by experiencing a
sense of mutual respect, harmony, and community as they
are connected to each other.
Guide question: How do we create or affirm a learning
atmosphere in which we feel respected by and connected to
one another?
Means: collaborative learning, particularly through sharing
personal stories
Outcomes: the outcomes of establishing inclusion stretch
from experiencing a climate of belonging to increasing learner
involvement to neuronal network integration and long-term
memory.

Developing attitude:
Description: Attitudes are the outgrowth of our engagement in
culture and with others. A learning experience forms and
shapes attitudes both positively and negatively just as attitudes
form and shape a learning experience both positively and
negatively.
Guide question: How do we create or affirm a favorable
disposition toward learning through personal relevance and
learner volition?
Means: relevant learning goals, particularly learner-directed
Outcomes: learners will thrive best when they experience
relevance and exercise volition within their cultural contexts.

Enhancing meaning:
Description: Culturally responsive teaching allows the learner to
understand, to find significance, and to make sense out of
learning experiences that in some way connect with the
learner’s own experiences.
Guide question: How do we create engaging and challenging
learning experiences that include learners’ perspectives and
values?
Means: critical reflection and group discussion
Outcomes: enhancing meaning will also increase the learner’s
participation in the learning experience.

Engender competence:
Description: Adult learning that values praxis and application will
lead to competence, for the learner is motivated to apply such
learning to his/her cultural context.
Guide question: How do we create or affirm an understanding
that learners have effectively learned something they value and
perceive as authentic to their real world?
Means: self assessment and reflection
Outcomes: competency, when expressed through authentic
learning experiences, will build the learner’s confidence level.

community of learners where
 “critical
both reflection and discourse are
utilized to facilitate the construction of
personally meaningful and
socially valid knowledge”
Garrison & Anderson, 2007, p. 21

Supporting
Social Discourse
Cognitive
Presence Presence
Learning
Experienc
e
Setting Selecting
Climate Content
Teaching
Presence
http://communitiesofinquiry.com/

 socialpresence is “the ability of
participants in a Community of Inquiry to
project themselves socially and
emotionally, as ‘real’ people through the
medium of communication being used”
Garrison, D. R., & Anderson, T. (2007). E-Learning in the 21st century: A
Framework for Research and Practice. New York: RoutledgeFalmer

 “the
exploration, construction,
resolution and confirmation of
understanding through collaboration
and reflection in a Community of
Inquiry”

 Teaching presence is “the design,
facilitation, and direction of cognitive and
social processes for the purpose of
realizing personally meaningful and
educationally worthwhile learning
outcomes”

Instructional Design
Philosophy, Theory, Content, Experience and Need
Instructor’s general educational philosophy
Theory of learning
Content or Field, the theory and logic, the data and
relationships
Experience of instructor and students
Need (Institutional, societal, individual and corporate
needs of participants)

Instructional Design
Philosophy, Theory, Content, Experience and Need
Objectives

Instructional Design
Philosophy, Theory, Content, Experience and Need
Objectives
Assessment

Instructional Design
Philosophy, Theory, Content, Experience and Need
Objectives
Activities
Assessment
Assignments (read, react, compose,
discuss, etc.)

Instructional Design
Philosophy, Theory, Content, Experience and Need
Objectives
Activities
Tools Forum, live chat, uploaded file,
audio, video
Assessment
Assignments (read, react, compose,
discuss, etc.)

Instructional Design
Philosophy, Theory, Content, Experience and Need
Objectives
Activities
Tools Forum, live chat, uploaded file,
audio, video
Assessment
Assignments (read, react, compose,
discuss, etc.)

Instructional Design
Philosophy, Theory, Content, Experience and Need
Objectives
Activities
Tools Forum, live chat, uploaded file,
audio, video
Assessment
Assignments (read, react, compose,
discuss, etc.)

Instructional Design
Philosophy, Theory, Content, Experience and Need
Objectives
Activities
Tools Forum, live chat, uploaded file,
audio, video
Assessment
Assignments (read, react, compose,
discuss, etc.)

Instructional Design
Philosophy, Theory, Content, Experience and Need
Objectives
Activities
Tools Forum, live chat, uploaded file,
audio, video
Assessment
Assignments (read, react, compose,
discuss, etc.)

Instructional Design
Philosophy, Theory, Content, Experience and Need
Objectives
Activities
Forum, live chat, uploaded file,
Tools audio, video
Assessment
Assignments (read, react, compose,
discuss, etc.)

Foundations for online learning and teaching include the
philosophical, psychological and theoretical bases for
developing and delivering effective online instruction.
Institutional Considerations, Motivation,
Community of Inquiry, Instructional Design

Creating Robust Environments for Online
Learning and Teaching:
Part B- Applications
Scot Headley, George Fox University

Applications for online learning and teaching include the
technological, relational and instructional strategies and
techniques helpful for success in effective online instruction
Technology Relationships Instruction

Seven Principles for Good Practice in Effective
Undergraduate Education
(Chickering and Gamson, 1987 AAHE Bulletin)
Good practice in undergraduate
education:
1. encourages contact between
students and faculty,
2. develops reciprocity and
cooperation among students,
3. encourages active learning,
4. gives prompt feedback,
5. emphasizes time on task,
6. communicates high
expectations, and
7. respects diverse talents and

Technology Tools
•Email, FTP, Web-based resources (Web 1.0)
•Content Management System (Moodle, Blackboard, Sakai,
etc.)
•Web conferencing systems (Adobe Connect, Elumminate,
iVocalize, Go to Meeting)
•Multiuser Virtual Environments (Second Life)
•Web 2.0 tools (wikis, blogs, media hosting such as Flickr and
YouTube)
•Public content management and community sites such as
Google aps, Facebook, Ning, etc.
•Open Educational Resources (Connexions, TED, etc.)
•Chat, Phone over IP, Mobile applications

Salmon’s Model: Stages of Needs of Online Learners
1.Access and Motivation
2.Online Socialization
3.Information Exchange
4.Knowledge Construction
5.Development
Salmon, G. (2000). E-Moderating: The key to teaching and
learning online. London: Kogan Page.

Salmon’s Model: Stages of Needs of Online Learners
1.Access and Motivation
Student Need: Get connected to course, access support
materials, understand purpose and develop motivation.
Instructor Response: Provide invitation and welcome, give
clear direction regarding access and support. Motivation
plan in place.
Specific suggestions: Consistent, well organized system of
presenting guidelines and instructions. Multiple
communication avenues (email and course site, at least).
Provide opportunity for informal exchange of personal
information (student lounge, autobiographical statements,
photos, etc.) Live gatherings, if possible for relation building
and question and answer sessions. Clear and appropriate
objectives, assignments and assessment.

Salmon’s Model: Stages of Needs of Online Learners
2. Online Socialization
Student Need: Develop a sense of belonging and identity,
learn to use the system(s) for accessing information and
communication, understand guidelines for behavior.
Instructor Response: Modeling appropriate interactivity,
making connections between participants and the learning
environment, promoting respect.
Specific suggestions: Detailed syllabus and guidelines for
expectations. Seed discussion areas with examples of
postings, provide prompt feedback to initial posts.
Encourage off-task communication in a lounge or “getting
to know you” space. Redundant communication on
expectations.

Salmon’s Model: Stages of Needs of Online Learners
3. Information Exchange
Student Need: Select and use information, exchange ideas
with others. Appropriately constrain interaction and
information retrieval.
Instructor Response: Directing effort. Presenting guidelines
for interaction, research and assignments. Personalizing
course activities.
Specific suggestions: Share examples, assessment rubrics.
Provide access to information sources, coach on
information sources. Respond and interact with discretion.

Salmon’s Model: Stages of Needs of Online Learners
4. Knowledge Construction
Student Need: Assert individual views. Make meaning and
share new learning. Develop collaborative efforts at
knowledge building.
Instructor Response: Group building. Facilitating discussion
and connecting the conversations with the content.
Specific suggestions: Encourage collaboration, provide
options on assignment if appropriate. Provide opportunities
for demonstration of learning through reflection and
application projects. Make introductions of people,
resources, ideas.

Salmon’s Model: Stages of Needs of Online Learners
5. Development
Student Need: Have and accept responsibility for self-
learning. Challenge assumptions regarding process and
content.
Instructor Response: Openness to challenge. Support for
self-directed learning. Troubleshoot technical or process
issues.
Specific suggestions: Provide appropriate and timely
feedback. Check and recheck published information.
Monitor discussions closely. Offer ongoing “office hours”.

Communication and Feedback Timelines
1.Do not “over-participate” in forum discussions. Respond to
conversations where appropriate, to answer direct questions,
to clear up misunderstanding or to further a key point.
2.Consider offering a general impression of a conversation (a
summary and analysis of a discussion as opposed to detailed
feedback to every message.
3.Establish and publish firm commitments for responding to
student communications:
a. Phone
and
email: 24
hour
response
b. Course
discussio
n posting:

Suggestions for Success
•Instructors invest more time working with smaller sections of
students.
•Instructors take an active role in pursuing lurkers or non-
participants.
•Course planning and syllabi allow time for relationship
building and reflection as primary activities of the course.
•Depth of learning is a desired outcome, as much as or more
than breadth.
•Interaction amongst the participants is rewarded in the formal
assessment of the course.

Suggestions for Success
•Instructors model commitment to relationships through
prompt and respectful replies to inquiries and discussion.
•Personal and technical needs and concerns of students are
attended to and addressed appropriately.
•The instructor invites interactions outside of the formal course
space.
•Feedback is prompt and readily available.

Supporting
Social Discourse
Cognitive
Presence Presence
Learning
Experienc
e
Setting Selecting
Climate Content
Teaching
Presence
http://communitiesofinquiry.com/

 Instructional design and organization
◦ Setting Curriculum
◦ Designing Methods
◦ Establishing Time Parameters
◦ Utilizing Medium Effectively
◦ Establishing Netiquette

 Facilitating Discourse
◦ Identifying Areas of Agreement/Disagreement
◦ Seeking to Reach Consensus/Understanding
◦ Encouraging, Acknowledging, or Reinforcing Student
Contributions
◦ Setting Climate for Learning
◦ Drawing in Participants, Prompting Discussions
◦ Assess the Efficacy of the Process

 Direct Instruction
◦ Present content/questions
◦ Focus the discussion on specific issues
◦ Summarize the discussion
◦ Confirm understanding through assessment and
explanatory feedback
◦ Diagnose misconceptions
◦ Inject knowledge from diverse sources (Textbooks,
articles, internet, personal experiences, etc)
◦ Responding to technical concerns

Assumptions
•Asynchronous vs. Synchronous elements
•Fully online vs. Hybrid or Mixed Delivery
•Orientation of Instructor regarding Nature of Learning, Role
of Instructor, Role of Student
•Activities (Reading, writing, discussing, building of…,
demonstrating, presenting
•Level of intellectual Activity (see Bloom)
•Relationships: Student to student, Student to content,
student to teacher, student to group

Bloom’s Taxonomy (updated)
Remembering: can the student recall or remember the information?
Understanding: can the student explain ideas or concepts?
Applying: can the student use the information in a new way?
Analysing: can the student distinguish between the different parts?
Evaluating: can the student justify a stand or decision?
Creating: can the student create new product or point of view?
http://www.odu.edu/educ/roverbau/Bloom/blooms_taxonomy.htm