3. SQL stands for Structured Query
Language
SQL lets you access and manipulate
databases
SQL is an ANSI (American National
Standards Institute) standard
4. SQL can execute queries against a database
SQL can retrieve data from a database
SQL can insert records in a database
SQL can update records in a database
SQL can delete records from a database
SQL can create new databases
SQL can create new tables in a database
SQL can create stored procedures in a
database
SQL can create views in a database
SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures,
and views
5. Byte:Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 1 byte
Integer: Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and
32,767 2 bytes
Long: Allows whole numbers between -
2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 4 bytes
char (size): Holds a fixed length string (can contain
letters, numbers, and special characters). The fixed
size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255
characters
varchar (size): Holds a variable length string (can
contain letters, numbers, and special characters).
The maximum size is specified in parenthesis. Can
store up to 255 characters
6. nchar: Fixed width Unicode string. Maximum 4,000
characters Defined width x 2
nvarchar : Variable width Unicode string. Maximum
4,000 characters
numeric(p,s): Fixed precision and scale numbers.
Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 –1.
The p parameter indicates the maximum total
number of digits that can be stored (both to the left
and to the right of the decimal point). p must be a
value from 1 to 38. Default is 18.
date :Store a date only. From January 1, 0001 to
December 31, 9999(3 bytes required)
7. The tables in the following sections provide
a functional summary of SQL statements
and are divided into these categories:
Data Definition Language (DDL)
Statements
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Statements
Transaction Control Statements(TCL)
Data Control Language(DCL)
10. Data definition language (DDL)
statements let you to perform these
tasks:
Create, alter, and drop schema objects
11. Data manipulation language (DML)
Statements access and manipulate data
in existing schema objects. These
statements do not implicitly commit the
current transaction. The data
manipulation language statements are:
delete, insert, update, select.
12. A data control language (DCL) is syntax
similar to a computer programming
language used to control access to data
stored in a database. In particular, it is a
component of Structured Query
Language (SQL).
Grant, Revoke,Truncate
13. Transaction control statements
manage changes made by DML
statements. The transaction control
statements are:
Commit, Rollback, Save point
19. Q2. CREATETABLE PRODUCT_MASTER
FIELDS ARE PRODUCT_ID,DESCRIPTION,
PROFITPECENT,QUANTITY,
SELLPRICE,COSTPRICE
Q2.(A) INSERT 10 RECORDS INTOTHETABLE.
Q3.(B).RETRIEVETHE ENTIRE CONTENTS OF
THE PRODUCT_MASTERTABLE
21. The ALTER TABLE Statement : The ALTER
TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or
modify columns in an existing table.
To add a column in a table, use the following
syntax:
ALTERTABLE table_name ADD
(column_name datatype(SIZE))
EXAMPLE: ALTERTABLE CLIENT_MASTER
ADD(TELPHONE NUMBER(10))
22. To delete a column in a table, use
the following
Syntax :ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP (column_name)
EXAMPLE: ALTER TABLE
CLIENT_MASTER
DROP(TELPHONE)
23. To MODIFY column datatype and size
in a table, use the following syntax
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY
(column_name DATATYPE(SIZE))
EXAMPLE: ALTERTABLE
CLIENT_MASTER
MODIFY(TELPHONE NUMBER(20))
25. The SQL UPDATE Statement :The UPDATE
statement is used to update existing records
in a table.
Syntax: UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value1,column2=value2,...
WHERE some_column=some_value
EXAMPLE: UPDATE CLIENT_MASTER SET
TELEPHONE=98657859WHERE
CLIENT_ID=‘C001’
26. The SQL DELETE Statement :The DELETE
statement is used to delete rows in a table.
SQL DELETE Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE some_column=some_value;
EXAMPLE: DELETE FROM
CLIENT_MASTERWHERE
CLIENT_ID=‘C005’
27. The DROPTABLE Statement:The DROP
TABLE statement is used to delete a table.
DROPTABLE table_name
EXAMPLE : DROPTABLE CLIENT_MASTER
28. RENAMETABLETableName1TO
TableName2 Parameters
TableName1 Specifies the name of the table
to be renamed.
TableName2 Specifies the new name of the
table.
EXAMPLE: RENAME CLIENT_MASTERTO
CLI_MASTER
29. WHERE CLAUSE
DISTINCT CLAUSE
ORDER BY CLAUSE
GROUP BY CLASUE
HAVING CLAUSE
30. The SQL WHERE Clause :The WHERE clause is
used to extract only those records that fulfill a
specified criterion.
SQL WHERE Syntax:SELECT
column_name,column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value;
EXAMPLE: SELECT * FROM CLIENT_MASTER
WHERE CLIENT_ID=‘C002’;
31. The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement: In a
table, a column may contain many duplicate
values; and sometimes you only want to list
the different (distinct) values.
The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return
only distinct (different) values.
SQL SELECT DISTINCT Syntax:
SELECT DISTINCT column_name,
column_name FROM table_name;
32. The SQL ORDER BY Keyword: The ORDER BY
keyword is used to sort the result-set by one
or more columns.
The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in
ascending order by default.To sort the
records in a descending order, you can use
the DESC keyword.
SQL ORDER BY Syntax:SELECT
column_name,column_name
FROM table_name ORDER BY
olumn_name,column_name ASC|DESC;
33. The GROUP BY statement is used in
conjunction with the aggregate functions to
group the result-set by one or more columns.
SQL GROUP BY Syntax
SELECT column_name,
aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name;
Example: SELECT Shippers.ShipperName
FROM Orders GROUP BY ShipperName;
34. The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the
WHERE keyword could not be used with aggregate
functions.
SQL HAVING Syntax: SELECT column_name,
aggregate_function(column_name) FROM
table_name WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name HAVING
aggregate_function(column_name) operator value;
SELECT Employees.LastName, Employees ON
Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID)
GROUP BY LastName HAVING Orders.OrderID > 10;
35. The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies
each record in a database table.
Primary keys must contain unique values.
A primary key column cannot contain NULL
values.
Each table should have a primary key, and each
table can have only ONE primary key.
SYNTAX: CREATETABLETABLE_NAME(CPLNAME
DATATYPE(SIZE)PRIMARY KEY,COLNAME2
DATATYPE(SIZE)…….COLNAMEn
DATATYPE(SIZE))
36. EXAMPLE: CREATETABLE Persons
(P_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255) )
37. A FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a PRIMARY
KEY in another table.
SYNATX: CREATETABLETAB_NAME(COLNAME
DATATYPE(SIZE) PRIMARY KEY,COLNAME2
DATATYPE(SIZE),……FOREIGNKEY(COLNAME)
REFERENCESTABLENAME(COLNAME))
EXAMPLE:CREATE TABLE Orders
( O_Id int NOT NULL, OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int, PRIMARY KEY (O_Id),
FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id))
39. Aggregate functions perform a calculation on a set
of values and return a single value. Except for
COUNT, aggregate functions ignore null values.
Aggregate functions are frequently used with the
GROUP BY clause of the SELECT statement.
MAX: The MAX() function returns the largest value
of the selected column.
SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name;
MIN:The MIN() function returns the smallest value
of the selected column.
SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name;
40. AVG:The AVG() function returns the average value of
a numeric column:
SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name
SUM:The SUM() function returns the total sum of a
numeric column.
SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM table_name;
COUNT:The COUNT(column_name) function
returns the number of values (NULL values will not
be counted) of the specified column:
SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name;
41. ABS(): Returns the absolute value of numeric
expression.
ABS() Syntax: SELECT ABS(NO) FROM DUAL
EXAMPLE: SELECT ABS(-12) FROM DUAL
CEIL(): Returns the smallest integer value that is not less
than passed numeric expression
CEIL() Syntax: SELECT CEIL(NO) FROM DUAL
EXAMPLE: SELECT CEIL(13.5) FROM DUAL
COS(): Returns the cosine of passed numeric expression.
The numeric expression should be expressed in radians.
SELECT COS(NO) FROM DUAL
EXAMPLE: SELECT COS(30) FROM DUAL
42. EXP(): Returns the base of the natural logarithm (e)
raised to the power of passed numeric expression.
SELECT EXP(NO) FROM DUAL
EXAMPLE: SELECT EXP(2) FROM DUAL
FLOOR(): Returns the largest integer value that is not
greater than passed numeric expression.
SELECT FLOOR(NO) FROM DUAL
EXAMPLE: SELECT FLOOR(13.5) FROM DUAL
LOG(): Returns the natural logarithm of the passed
numeric expression.
SELECT LOG(NO) FROM DUAL
EXAMPLE: SELECT LOG(10) FROM DUAL
43. MOD(): Returns the remainder of one expression by
diving by another expression.
SELECT MOD(NO) FROM DUAL
EXAMPLE: SELECT MOD(10) FROM DUAL
ROUND(): Returns numeric expression rounded to
an integer. Can be used to round an expression to a
number of decimal points
SELECT ROUND(NO) FROM DUAL
EXAMPLE: SELECT ROUND(10.19) FROM DUAL
POW(): Returns the value of one expression raised
to the power of another expression
SELECT POW(NO,NO) FROM DUAL
EXAMPLE: SELECT POW(10,2) FROM DUAL
44. LOWER() Returns the argument in lowercase
SELECT LOWER(STRING) FROM DUAL
EXAMPLE: SELECT LOWER(santosh) FROM DUAL
UPPER() Converts to uppercase
SELECT UPPER(STRING) FROM DUAL
EXAMPLE: SELECT UPPER(COMPUTER) FROM
DUAL
INITCAP()The first letter of the string is Capital
SELECT INITCAP(STRING) FROM DUAL
EXAMPLE: SELECT INITCAP(santosh) FROM DUAL
45. LENGTH() Returns the length of a string in
bytes
SELECT LENGTH(STRING) FROM DUAL
EXAMPLE: SELECT LENGTH(COMPUTER)
FROM DUAL
LPAD() Returns the string argument, left-
padded with the specified string
SELECT LPAD(STRING) FROM DUAL
EXAMPLE: SELECT LPAD('hi',4,'??');
FROM DUAL
46. RPAD() Appends string the specified number
of times
SELECT RPAD(STRING) FROM DUAL
EXAMPLE: SELECT RPAD('hi',4,’*'); FROM
DUAL
LTRIM() Removes leading spaces
SELECT LTRIM(' STRING') FROM DUAL;
EXAMPLE:SELECT LTRIM(‘SANTOSH’,3)
FROM DUAL;
RTRIM() Removes trailing spaces
SELECT RTRIM(' STRING') FROM DUAL;
EXAMPLE:SELECT RTRIM(‘SANTOSH’,3)
FROM DUAL;
47. SQL AND & OR Operators : The AND & OR
operators are used to filter records based on
more than one condition. The AND operator
displays a record if both the first condition AND
the second condition are true. The OR operator
displays a record if either the first condition OR
the second condition is true.
AND Operator Example
The following SQL statement selects all
customers from the country "Germany" AND the
city "Berlin", in the "Customers" table:
Example : SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE
Country='Germany‘ AND City='Berlin';
48. The following SQL statement selects all
customers from the city "Berlin" OR "München",
in the "Customers" table
Example: SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City='Berlin‘ OR City='München';
49. The IN Operator:The IN operator allows
you to specify multiple values in a WHERE
clause.
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name WHERE column_name
IN (value1,value2,...);
IN Operator Example: The following SQL
statement selects all customers with a City
of "Paris" or "London":
Example: SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City IN ('Paris','London');
50. The SQL BETWEEN Operator:The
BETWEEN operator selects values within a
range.The values can be numbers, text, or
dates.
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2;
51. NOT BETWEEN Operator Example :To display
the products outside the range of the
previous example, use NOT BETWEEN:
Example: SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE Price NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
The following SQL statement selects all
products with a Product Name beginning
with any of the letter BETWEEN 'C' and 'M':
Example : SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE ProductName BETWEEN 'C' AND 'M';
52. LIKEThe LIKE operator is used to compare
a value to similar values using wildcard
operators.
The SQL LIKE Operator :The LIKE operator
is used to search for a specified pattern in a
column.
SQL LIKE Syntax : SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern;
Example : SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE ‘S%';
