This document summarizes a proposed approach to analyze the impact of infrastructure quality on primary education using a cross-impact analysis method. The approach involves defining relevant system entities and attributes, developing a cross-impact matrix to measure interactions, collecting initial data, simulating the system over iterations with and without a policy variable, and analyzing the results. Simulation results on data from India show that implementing infrastructure improvements leads to increased enrollment, reduced repeaters, and decreased dropouts over time.

1. 5th International Summer School
Achievements and Applications of Contemporary Informatics,
Mathematics and Physics
National University of Technology of the Ukraine
Kiev, Ukraine, August 3-15, 2010
Model Approach for Infrastructure Quality
of Primary Education Facilities
Impact Analysis
Gerhard-Wilhelm Weber
Institute of Applied Mathematics, METU, Ankara,Turkey
Faculty of Economics, Business and Law, University of Siegen, Germany
Center for Research on Optimization and Control, University of Aveiro, Portugal
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Malaysia
Erik Kropat
Chair of OR, Universitat der Bundeswehr, Munich, Germany
Linet Ozdamar
Department of Systems Engineering, Yedipete University, Turkey
Claudia Rave
E nergy, Economy and Environment, Analysis and Modeling Group
National University of Colombia, Medellin
Chandra Sekhar Pedamallu
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA

2. Outline
 Background
 Observations made from previous studies
 Different aspects to consider
 Proposed approach
 Conclusion

3. Background
Education Index (according to 2007/2008, Human Development Report)
101 million children of primary school age are out of school
Number of primary-school-age children not in school, by region (2007)
http://www.childinfo.org/education.html

4. Background
 The first stage of compulsory education is primary or elementary education.
 In most countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education,
though in many jurisdictions it is permissible for parents to provide it.
 The transition from elementary school to secondary school or high school is
somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age.
 The major goals of primary education are achieving basic literacy and numeracy
amongst all pupils, as well as establishing foundations in science, geography,
history and other social sciences.
 The relative priority of various fields, and the methods used to teach them,
are an area of considerable political debate.
 Some of the expected benefits from primary education are the reduction of the
infant mortality rate, the population growth rate, of the crude birth and death rate,
and so on.

5. Observations made from previous studies
 Because of the importance of primary education, there are several models proposed
to study the factors influencing the primary school enrollment and progressions.
 Various models developed to analyze issues in basic education are as follows:
• logistic regression models [Admassu 2008],
• Poisson regression models [Admassu 2008],
• system dynamics models
[Altamirano and van Daalen 2004, Karadeli et al. 2001, Pedamallu 2001, Terlou et al. 1999],
• behavioral models [Benson 1995, Hanushek et al. 2008]
in the contexts of different countries.
 Several factors have been identified which influence the school enrollment and
drop outs.

6. Observations made from previous studies
 Some of the vital factors which influence school enrollment and drop outs are
• at the macro level:
- social, economic and logistics factors [Benson 1995, and so on],
• at the micro level:
- parental education, household wealth/income, distance to school,
financial assistance to students and quality of schooling
[Admassu 2008, Benson 1995, Rena 2007, Hanushek et al. 2008 ],
- student to teacher ratio and student to class ratio [Karadeli et al. 2001 and so on],
- poverty level of the family [Altamirano and van Daalen 2004, Akar 2008, and so on],
- infrastructural facilities [Akar 2008].
Infrastructural facilities play a vital role for the quality
of primary educational system ...
but not many models have been developed yet.

7. Different issues to consider
 To design a good policy, issues to be considered / understood are:
- reason behind enrollment, drop-outs and repeaters in school,
- perceived quality of teaching by students and parents,
- educational level and income level of parents,
- expectations from school by parents,
- perceived quality of teaching by the District Educational Officer (DEO),
- needs of different infrastructure facilities (space, ventilation, sanitation, etc.)
in the school,
- and much more … .

8. Goal
 to analyze importance of infrastructural facilities on the quality of the
primary education system and its correlation to attributes related to the
primary education system and environment including parents, teachers,
infrastructure and so on (cross impact matrix),
 to predict the effects of infrastructural facilities on the quality of primary
education system so that a discussion can be started on how to develop policies,
 to develop intervention policies using societal problem handling methods such as
COMPRAM [DeTombe 1994, 2003] once the outputs of the model become known
with available data.

9. Possible solutions
Some popular approaches are:
 system thinking approach (cross-impact analysis),
 system dynamics,
 mathematical modelling.

10. Proposed approach
A cross-impact analysis method has been proposed here to study the importance
of infrastructural facilities on the quality of primary education system:
 basic entities and their relationships are described,
and a list of attributes are provided,
 the cross-impact among attributes can be measured
by pairwise correlation analysis.
 partial cross-impact matrix that conveys information on the influence
of one variable over the other is illustrated using qualitative judgment,
 parameters are then fed into mathematical equations that change the level
of variables throughout simulation iterations,
 significance of infrastructural facilities on the quality of primary education system
can then be identified and analyzed.

11. Steps involved in building systems model
Step 1: Define the system
Systems are made of entities, which interact with each other and produce some outputs,
which are either designed or natural.
Here, the system is primary education system:
a. Environment
Every system functions in an environment, which provides inputs to the system and receives
outputs from the system.
Here, the environment is society.
b. Structure
All systems have a structure. The body of a system’s structure is represented by
the entities of the system and their interrelations or linkages or connections.
Here, entities are
 student,
 teacher,
 parents,
 educational officials,
 infrastructure and
 local community.

12. Steps involved in building systems model
c. Linkages
- It is important to try to understand, what linkages make up the system’s structure,
which entities are linked with each other, and the implications of these linkages
on the behavior of the entities in particular.
- The entity relationship diagram of the system is a better illustration
of the relationships among the entities identified.
Here, linkages are
 liaise,
 feedback,
 follows,
 guides,
 avails,
 reports,
 inspects,
 influence, etc..

13. Entity relationship diagram
Local Local
community community
Influence Influence
Liaise
Teacher
Parents
Feedback
Follow
Guide s
s
Reports Avails
Students (teaching)
Facilitate
Avails
Inspects
Facilitate
Educa- Inspects Influence
Infra-
tional
struc-
officials
ture Local
Influence
community
Local
community

14. Steps involved in building systems model
Step 2: System entities and relationship equations
- The dynamic change of the system state is referred to as system behaviour.
- The state of a system is an instantaneous snapshot of levels (or, amounts)
of the relevant attributes (or, characteristics) possessed by the entities
that constitute the system.
- In all systems, every entity possesses many attributes, but only a few attributes are
relevant with reference to the problem at hand. Some attributes are of immediate or
short-term relevance while others may be of relevance in the long run.
List of attributes:
Entity 1: Student:
1.1 Level of enrollment (loe).
1.2 Level of boys drop-outs in a school (lbd).
1.3 Level of girls drop-outs in a school (lgd).
1.4 Level of repeaters in a school (lr).
Entity 2: Teacher:
2.1 Level of perceived quality of teaching by the Students (lts).
2.2 Level of perceived quality of teaching by the Parents (ltp).

15. Steps involved in building systems model
Entity 5: Infrastructure:
5.1 Level of space and ventilation available in a classroom (lsv).
5.2 Level of cleanliness and other facilities such as board, mats, table/chair, educational aids
(maps, toys, charts, etc.) (lc).
5.3 Level of sanitation facilities for general purpose (for both boys and girls) (ls_g).
5.4 Level of separate sanitation facilities for girls (ls_s).
5.5 Level of drinking water facility available (ldw).
5.6 Level of availability of playground area and other equipment
for children used in playing (lpa).
5.7 Level of bad organising in the classrooms (lbo):
a. Number of cases in which more than one class is conducted in a single instructional classroom.
b. Number of cases in which more than 40 people are accommodating in a single instructional classroom.
Entity 6: Local community:
6.1 Level of participation of local community (llc).
6.2 Level of awareness of local community about educational benefits (lale).

16. Conjectures valid in systems approach
 Modeling and forecasting the behavior of complex systems are necessary
if we are to exert some degree of control over them.
 Properties of variables and interactions in our large-scale system:
- System variables are bounded:
0 xi (t ) 1 i 1, 2,...., N , and t 0,
where xi (t ) is the level of variable i in period t.
- A variable increases or decreases according to whether the net impact
of the other variables is positive or negative.
To preserve boundedness, x(t t ) is modelled as:
xi (t t ) xi (t ) Pi (t ) ,
where
1 t | sum of negative impact on xi |
Pi (t ) . [Julius 2002]
1 t | sum of positive impact on xi |

17. Conjectures valid in systems approach
 A variable’s response to a given impact decreases to 0 as
that variable approaches its upper or lower bound.
 It is generally found that bounded growth and decay processes exhibit
this sigmoidal character.
 All other issues being constant, a variable (attribute) will produce a
greater impact on the system as it grows larger (ceteris paribus).
 Complex interactions are described by a looped network of binary interactions
(this is the basis of cross-impact analysis).

18. Steps involved in building systems model
o The choice of relevant attributes has to be made carefully, keeping in mind both
short-term and long-term consequences of solutions (decisions).
o All attributes can be associated with given levels that may indicate
quantitative or qualitative possession.
• When entities interact through their attributes, the levels of the attributes might
change, i.e., the system behaves in certain directions.
• Some changes in attribute levels may be desirable while others may not be so.
• Each attribute influences several others, thus creating a web of
complex interactions that eventually determine system behavior.
In other terms, attributes are variables that vary from time to time.
• They can vary in an unsupervised way in the system.
• However, variables can be controlled directly or indirectly, and partially
by introducing new intervention policies.
• However, interrelations among variables should be analyzed carefully
before introducing new policies.

19. Implementation of cross-impact analysis
Four steps of implementation:
Step 1. Set the initial values to identified attributes obtained from
published sources and surveys conducted.
Step 2. Build a cross-impact matrix with the identified relevant attributes.
a. Summing the effects of column attributes on rows indicates the effect of each
attribute in the matrix.
b. The parameters ij can be determined by creating a pairwise correlation matrix
after collecting the data, and adjusted
by subjective assessment.
c. Qualitative impacts
are quantified subjectively as
shown in the table.
Qualitative impacts can be
extracted from a published
sources and survey data set.

20. Implementation of cross-impact analysis
d. The impact of infrastructural facilities on primary school enrollments
and progression become visible by running the simulation model.
e. An exemplary partial cross-impact matrix with the attributes and
their hypothetical values above is illustrated as follows:
-

21. Simulating the system using cross impact analysis
Step 3. Simulate the system for m iterations (50 iterations) and tabulate the
behavior of each attribute in every iteration. Plot the results on a worksheet.
Step 4. Simulate the system with identified policy variable.
- Identify a policy variable to achieve the desired level or state
and augment the cross-impact matrix with this policy variable
by qualitative assessment of pairwise attribute interactions.
- The policy variable introduced is infrastructural improvements, which
shows positive impact on level of space and ventilation, cleanliness and
other facilities such as board, mats, table/chair, educational aids,
eparate sanitation facilities for girls and general sanitation facilities,
available drinking water facilities, and class organization.
- Observe the system for another m iterations, and check
if the desired state is achieved by introducing the policy variable.
Compare the results.

22. Data acquisition
 The cross-impact systems model requires data from an unbiased sample
(through selecting a particular region or state of a developing country).
 Data can be obtained from conducting personal surveys and
data published from the selected developing country.
 The information obtained can be converted into meaningful
qualitative and quantitative impact factors after being normalized.
Then, the initial values for the attribute levels xi (0) can be set accordingly.
 Once initial attribute levels are determined from the data and
cross-impact parameters ij are calculated, the model is simulated.
 These simulations illustrate the effects of infrastructural facilities
on quality of primary education over time.

23. Data acquisition
 The cross-impact systems model requires data from an unbiased sample
(through selecting a particular region or state of a developing country).
 Data can be obtained from conducting personal surveys and
data published from the selected developing country.
 The information obtained can be converted into meaningful
qualitative and quantitative impact factors after being normalized.
Then, the initial values for the attribute levels xi (0) can be set accordingly.
 Once initial attribute levels are determined from the data and
cross-impact parameters ij are calculated, the model is simulated.
 These simulations illustrate the effects of infrastructural facilities
on quality of primary education over time.
The following simulation is based on data from Gujarat (India).

24. Simulation results
 Level of enrollment (loe) Level of enrollment (loe)
Before implementation of policy variables (red line):
- sharp increase at the beginning phase of the simulation
(first 12 iterations), and then there is steady decrease
after a certain period of time (first 12 iterations).
After implementation of policy variables (blue line):
- steady increase from initial value (0.71) to unity.
Analysis:
- increase in level of enrollment in first 12 iterations happens
because of the response lag in population to bad quality
school system,
- instant impact on the level enrollment after implementation
of policy variables because students and parents are more
eager to have the children attend a nice looking healthy
school.

25. Simulation results
 Level of repeaters (lr) Level of repeaters (lr)
Before implementation of policy variables (red line):
- steady increase from 0.05 to unity in 50 iterations.
After implementation of policy variables (blue line):
- steady increase from initial value 0.05 to 0.12 in first 14
iterations and then declined to zero in 50 iterations.
Analysis:
- level of repeaters has instant impact on level of repeaters
if the infrastructural facilities are bad
(assumption: teachers are doing their best in teaching –
this variable is static - so variable impacted here is teaching aids),
- increase in level of repeaters in first 14 iterations is because
improvement in the infrastructure does not have an instant
impact on the level repeaters.

26. Simulation results
 Level of dropouts
Before implementation of policy variables (red line):
- steady decrease from 0.2 in initial iterations and there is steady increase to unity.
After implementation of policy variables (blue line):
- steady decrease from initial value 0.2 to zero.
Analysis:
- level of dropouts is reduced in the initial iterations because students and teachers are getting
adjusted to the school environment. Then there is steady increase in dropouts because of
frustration from students and parents on quality of school,
- decrease in level of dropouts is because improvement in the infrastructure have an impact
on the students and parents.
Level of boys dropouts (lbd) Level of girls dropouts (lgd)

27. Simulation results
 Level of bad organizing of classroom (lbo) Level of bad organizing of classroom (lbo)
Before implementation of policy variables (red line):
- steady increase from 0.69 to unity.
After implementation of policy variables (blue line):
- decrease from initial value 0.69 to 0.57.
Analysis:
- not greatly affected because there are several other attributes
that influence this variable such as the level of perceived quality of
teaching by the district educational officer and number of teachers.
 Other important variables
Level of sanitation facilities for Level of separate sanitation Level of space and ventilation
general purpose (ls_g) facilities for girls (ls_s) available in a classroom (lsv)

28. Conclusions
 A cross-impact model is developed here to study the influence of infrastructure
facilities on primary education enrollment and progression.
 The cross-impact matrix developed illustrates the influence of one variable
over the others, and it also provided the identification of the impact variables
(i.e., policy variables).
 We describe the simulation method and the data to be collected
if such a model is executed.
 Impact of infrastructural facilities influence has been studied on the
primary education quality.
 This study is not meant to exclude any other important variables such as gender
and parental status that affect school attendance and dropouts.
 Countries considered for future application:
o Colombia,
o India,
o Turkey,
o perhaps, China, the Philippines, etc..

29. Conclusions

30. References
 H. Akar, “Poverty, and Schooling in Turkey: a Needs Assessment Study”, presentation at EURO ORD
Workshop on Complex Societal Problems, Sustainable Living and Development, May 13-16, 2008, IAM,
METU, Ankara.
 K. Admassu, “Primary School Enrollment and Progression in Ethiopia: Family and School Factors”,
American Sociological Association Annual Meeting, July 31, 2008, Boston, MA.
 E.A. Hanushek, V. Lavy, and H. Kohtaro, “Do Students Care about School Quality? Determinants of
Dropout Behavior in Developing Countries”, Journal of Human Capital 2:1, 2008, pp. 69-105.
 Julius, The Delphi Method: Techniques and Applications, eds.: A.L. Harold and T. Murray, Addison-
Wesley, 2002.
 U. Leopold-Wildburger, G.-W. Weber and M. Zachariasen, “OR for Better Management of Sustainable
Development”, European Journal of Operational Research 193:3 (March 2009); special issue at the
occasion of EURO XXI 2006, Reykjavik, Iceland, 2006.
 D.C. Lane, “Social theory and system dynamics practice”, European Journal of Operational Research
113:3 (1999), pp. 501-527.
 C.S. Pedamallu, Externally aided construction of school rooms for primary classes - preparation of project
report. Master’s Dissertation, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, 2001.
 C.S. Pedamallu, L. Özdamar, G.-W. Weber and E. Kropat, “A system dynamics model to study
the importance of infrastructure facilities on quality of primary education system in developing countries”,
in the proceedings of PCO 2010, 3rd Global Conference on Power Control and Optimization,
February 2-4, 2010, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia (ISBN: 978-983-44483-1-8), also to appear in
Proceedings of AIP (American Institute of Physics).
 W. Weimer-Jehle, “Cross-impact balances: A system-theoretical approach to cross-impact analysis”,
Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 73:4, May 2006, pp. 334-361.

31. Acknowledgements
Prof. L.S. Ganesh, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India.
Mr. B. Viswanthan, Tata Economic Consultancy, Chennai, India.
European Working Group on OR for Development.
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT Madras, India.
Tata Economic Consultancy, Chennai, India.
IFORS - International Federation of Operational Research Societies.
EURO - Association of European Operational Research Societies.
ALIO and INFORMS.
Conference organizers.

32. References:
http://www3.iam.metu.edu.tr/iam/images/7/73/Willi-CV.pdf
Thank you very much for your attention!
gweber@metu.edu.tr