This PDF is the detailed description of the theories of personalities along with the psychologists.

1. HUL265 ASSIGNMENT
VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES OF PERSONALITY
-Karishma Dhakad
2013TT10938
PSYCHOLOGIST Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Personality is: Determined by childhood experiences and unconscious motivations.
Normal
Behaviour:
When the psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is
normal behavior.
Abnormal
Behaviour:
Abnormality came from the unresolved conflicts between the id, ego
and superego and bad childhood experiences.
Key features:  Role of Unconscious and childhood experiences.
 Structure of personality- Id, Ego and Superego
 Levels of mind- Conscious, unconscious and preconscious mind
 Types of anxiety
 Neurotic
 Reality
 Moral
 Defence mechanisms
 Displacement
 Denial
 Repression
 Projection
 Rationalization
 Intellectualization
 Reaction Formation
 Regression
 Fixation
 Suppression
 Sublimation
 Stages of Psychosexual Development
 Oral: 0-2 years
 Anal: 2-4 years
1.PSYCHOANALYSIS

2. EVALUATION
Merits:  Highlighted the importance of Childhood
 It initiated and addressed the importance of the unconscious and
aggressive drives that make-up the majority of all human beings'
personalities.
 Also explains defence mechanisms and why every individual reacts
differently to similar situations.
Demerits:  Freud failed to include evidence of the impact of the environment on
the individual throughout his theory.
 The theory is unscientific i.e. lacking in empirical data and too
focused on pathology.
 This theory lacks consideration of culture and its influence on
personality.
 Phallic: 4-5 years
 Latency: 5-puberty
 Genital: puberty onwards
 Psychodynamic approach
Research
methods:
 Free Association Method-Patients are asked to freely express
whatever thoughts and feelings happen to come into their mind
 Dream analysis- Manifest content & Latent content(Royal road to the
unconsciousness)
 Projective techniques- Thematic Apperception Test(TAT), Ink Blot
Tests
 Case studies give psychological researchers the possibility to
investigate cases, which could not possibly be engineered in research
laboratories. Ex. Little Hans (1909a) and The Rat Man (1909b)
 Freudian Slips- an inadvertent mistake in speech or writing that is
thought to reveal a person's unconscious motives, wishes, or
attitudes
Therapies: Freudian Psychotherapy: Attempts to bring hidden impulses and
memories, which are locked in the unconscious to the surface of
awareness and therefore freeing the patient from disordered
thoughts and behaviors.
Psychodynamic approach: Instead of sexual and aggressive drives,
emphasis is given on improving patient`s interpersonal and social
skills. Focus on current problems rather than on the distant past.

3. PSYCHOLOGIST Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961)
Analytical Psychology/Jungian Psychology
Personality is: Based on the opposing attitudes of introversion and extroversion.
Normal
Behaviour:
When the libidinal energy is focused on various needs for growth, the
result is normal behavior.
Abnormal
Behaviour:
When too much libidinal energy is spent on a single activity, the result
is abnormal behaviour.
Key features:  Libido- general biological life energy
 Components of Personality-Ego, Personal Unconscious (Complexes)
and Collective Unconscious
 Archetypes- Persona, Anima, Animus, Shadow and Self
 Psychological Types- Introversion and Extraversion
 Functions of Thought
i. Perception: Sensing, Intuiting
ii. Judgement: Thinking, Feeling
 Myers-Brigg’s Personality Test- 8 Personality types
 Stages of Development- Childhood, young adulthood and middle age.
 Life`s Goal:
i. To achieve self actualization
ii. Individuation
iii. Mandala- circle-symbols of balance, perfection and harmony
like circle.
Research
methods:
 Word Association Method- technique of psychodynamic therapy is
free association in which a patient talks of whatever comes into their
mind.
 Interviewing psychotic patients
 Jung`s analysis of Dreams- Jung believed that dream images reveal
something about yourself, your relationships with others, and
situations in your waking life.
 Active Imagination- A method of assimilating unconscious contents
(dreams, fantasies, etc.) through some form of self-expression. Jung
invited his patients to let all the things flow in their mind.
Therapies:
Jungian Psychotherapy: It was tailored to the individual.
Jung recognized the variability of the individual and did not start out
with assumptions about a problem.
He undertook to bring the patient's hidden story to the surface and
focused on the situation at present.
By allowing previously unconscious contents into consciousness, by
increasing the patient's knowledge of his/her own unconscious self,

4. Jung achieved a therapeutic result.
Merits:  He was the first to distinguish the two major attitudes or
orientations of personality – extroversion and introversion.
 His collective unconscious helped in broadening the scope of
personality theory.
 Jung's theory able assists those who had trauma by identifying
their cultural myth and legends.
Demerits: His ideas were a little more mystical and obscure, and less clearly
explained.
Lack of proof and scientific research
 Jung theory cannot apply towards Islam religion because when
Jung doing his research for world religions of the world for ideas he
had ignore the Islam religion.
PSYCHOLOGIST Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
Individual Psychology/Alderian Psychology
Personality is: Based on a person’s lifestyle.
Normal
Behaviour:
The socially useful type: A healthy person, who has both social
interest and energy shows normal behavior.
Abnormal
Behaviour:
• Abnormal behaviour is due to underdeveloped social interest.
– Setting goals too high
– Living in their own private world
– Rigid and dogmatic style of life
– The ruling-dominant type : aggressive and dominant ,e.g. bullies
and sadists; alcoholics, drug addicts, and suicides.
– The getting-leaning type: dependent on others: phobias, obsessions
and compulsions, general anxiety, hysteria, amnesias
– The avoiding type: psychotic
Key Features:  Emphasized on whole and not parts
 Organ inferiority and compensation
 Feelings of Inferiority as Motivational
 Striving for superiority.
 Lifestyle- Crystallized by the age of 4 or 5
 Fictional Goals- Based in subjective reality
 Three major tasks in life-
i. Occupational tasks
ii. Societal tasks
iii. Love and marriage tasks
 Three childhood conditions lead to faulty life style-
a. Physical inferiority

5. b. Spoiling or pampering childhood
c. Neglecting childhood
 Safeguarding strategies- Used by neurotics
 Teleology- Humans are goal directed
 Creative power- Enables people to be in control of their lives
Research
Methods:
 Birth Order: The order a child is born, for example first born,
second born etc. Birth order is often believed to have a profound
and lasting effect on psychological development.
 First Memories: They revealed a person's characteristic way of
interacting with other people. He routinely asked his patients to
report the first things they could remember from childhood.
 Dream Analysis: Give understanding of our lifestyle, unfulfilled
desires or our prevailing feeling about others.
 Lifestyle Analysis: Includes a person’s goal, self- concept, feelings
for others, and attitude towards the world.
Therapies: Alderian Psychotherapy:
1. Understanding the specific style of life of the patient.
2. Explaining the patient to himself or herself.
3. Strengthening the social interest in the patient.
In sum, Understand, interpret, direct.
Merits:  He stressed holism, goal-seeking, and enormous importance of
values in human thinking, emotions and behaviour.
 Adler’s birth order plays an important role in personality.
Demerits:  Adlerian assumptions about personality overly optimistic and
simplistic.
 If the child was an only child, this personality theory will not fully
apply to this child.
PSYCHOLOGIST Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
Ego Psychology
Normal
Behaviour:
When each of the psychosocial stages is completed successfully, a virtue
is added to the personality and the result is normal behaviour.
Abnormal
Behaviour:
When the stages of psychosocial development are not resolved
successfully, the result is abnormal behaviour.
Key features:  Identity crisis
 Three phases: Immature, Critical and Resolution.
 Epigenetic Principle- we develop through an unfolding of our

6. personality in predetermined stages
 Virtue
 Rituals and Ritualization
 Eight Stages of Psychosocial development
 Trust vs Mistrust
 Autonomy vs Shame and doubt
 Initiative vs guit
 Industry vs Inferiority
 Identity vs Role confusion
 Intimacy vs Isolation
 Generativity vs stagnation
 Integrity vs despair
Research
methods:
 Anthropological Studies- Sioux of South Dakota and the Yurok
tribe of northern California
 Psychohistory- Erikson combined the methods of psychoanalysis
and historical research to study several personalities
 Play Construction- Erikson concluded that anatomical differences
between the sexes play a role in personality development
 Dreams and Free Association
Therapies: Psycho-historical Analysis- Allow the patient to simulate a task of
the missing developmental stage so that the challenge can be
repeated and the goal can be met. Ex: a patient who does not
trust anyone can mimic a moment where trust is put to the test.
Once the trust is gained, the idea is that the developmental task
has been accomplished.
Transference- a client's feelings for the therapist. May be used to
understand the origins of the client's emotional and psychological
problems.
Repressed Memory Theory- RMT assumes that a healthy
psychological state can be restored only by recovering and facing
these repressed memories of sexual abuse.
Merits:  His eight stages of psychosocial development serve as a guide
that holds across time and cultures as well.
 It provides a broad framework from which to view development
throughout the entire lifespan.
 It also allows us to emphasize the social nature of human beings
and the important influence that social relationships have on
development.
Demerits:  His theory is more applicable to boys than to girls, and that more
attention is paid to infancy and childhood than to adult life,

7. despite the claim to be a life-span theory.
 Erik’s research methods were time consuming, expensive and
difficult to apply to an individual experiencing role confusion.
 No cultural differences were taken into consideration that may
have affected the time during which an individual was in one
particular stage. For example: potty training begins at different
ages depending on the culture.
Normal
Behaviour:
When a person observes and imitates a behaviour which is not
harmful, the result is normal behaviour that means if the
conditioning of a person is right, he/she shows normal behaviour.
Abnormal
Behaviour:
Abnormality is therefore seen as the development of behavior
patterns that are considered maladaptive (i.e. harmful) for the
individual.
PSYCHOLOGIST John B. Watson (1878-1958)
Key features:  Founder of Behaviourism
 Behaviour can be measured, trained, and changed.
 All behaviors are acquired through conditioning.
 Principles of conditioning-
 Acquisition
 Extinction
 Spontaneous Recovery
 Generalization & Discrimination
 According to him, only behavior that could be observed, recorded
and measured was of any real value for the study of humans or
animals.
 Explored classical conditioning using a nine month-old baby boy,
Albert known as Little Albert Experiment.
Research
methods:
 Trial-and-observation: Simply observing behavior in a systematic
manner without influencing or interfering with the behavior.
 LITTLE ALBERT EXPERIMENT: example of how classical
2.
BEHAVIOURISM

8. conditioning can be used to condition an emotional response.
 Neutral Stimulus: The white rat
 Unconditioned Stimulus: The loud noise
 Unconditioned Response: Fear
 Conditioned Stimulus: The white rat
 Conditioned Response: Fear
After conditioning, Albert feared not just the white rat, but a wide
variety of similar white objects as well. His fear included other
furry objects including fur coat and a Santa Claus beard.
PSYCHOLOGIST B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Key features:  Operant Conditioning- method of learning that occurs through
rewards and punishments for behaviour.
 Positive and negative reinforcement-increases behaviour
 Punishment-decreases behaviour
 Law of Effect (Edward Thorndike) - Actions that are followed by
reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur
again in the future.
 Schedules of Reinforcement
 Fixed-ratio schedules
 Variable-ratio schedules
 Fixed-interval schedules
 Variable-interval schedules
 Radical Behaviourism- the contents of the Organism (habits,
motives, drive, expectancies, thought) are NOT important in
explaining behaviour.
 Cumulative Recorder
Research
methods:
Skinner Box-
 Skinner conducted most of his research in a special cumulative
recorder, now referred to as a Skinner box, which was used to
analyze behavioural responses from his test subjects.
 While working with rats, he would place them in a Skinner box with
a lever attached to a feeding tube. Whenever the rat pressed the
lever, food would be released.
 After the experience of multiple trials, rats learned the association
between the lever and food, and began to spend more of their time

9. in the box procuring food than performing any other action.
 He fed the pigeon on continuous intervals (every 15 seconds), and
observed the pigeon's behaviour.
 He found that a pigeon's actions would change depending on what
they had been doing in the moments before the food was
dispensed, regardless of the fact that those actions had nothing to
do with the dispensing of food.
 In this way, he discerned that the pigeon had fabricated a causal
relationship between its actions and the presentation of reward.
PSYCHOLOGIST Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Key Features:  Classical Conditioning- A learning process that occurs through
associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally
occurring stimulus.
 Types of Classical Conditioning-
 Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS begin and end together
 Short-delayed conditioning: CS begins just before the UCS, end
together
 Trace conditioning: CS begins and ends before UCS.
 Pavlov’s Dogs- Pavlov discovered that any object or event which the
dogs learnt to associate with food (such as the lab assistant) would
trigger the same response.
Research
methods:
Pavlov’s Experiment with dogs:
 Neutral Stimulus: bell
 Unconditioned Stimulus: food
 Unconditioned Response: saliva
 Conditioned Stimulus: bell
 Conditioned Response: saliva
Before Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus No response
Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response
During Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus+ Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned

10. response
After Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response
THERAPIES IN BEHAVIOURISM
Relaxation
Training
 Biofeedback- may include gaining control over voluntary such things
as heart rate, muscle tension, blood flow, pain perception and blood
pressure.
 Progressive muscle relaxation and abdominal breathing
 Clients are encouraged to actually feel and experience the tension
building up, to notice their muscles getting tighter and study the
tension, to hold and fully experience the tension
Systematic
Desensitization
 Clients are to imagine successively more anxiety arousing situations
at the same time that they engage in a behavior that competes with
anxiety.
 Gradually clients become less sensitive to the anxiety arousing
situations.
Exposure
Therapies
 Designed to treat fears and other negative emotional responses by
introducing client to the situation that contributed to such
problems.
 In Vivo desensitization- exposure of client to the actual feared
situation in real life rather than simply imagining situations.
 Flooding- Either in vivo or imaginary exposure to anxiety-evoking
stimuli for a prolonged period of time
Self
Management
 Therapists teach clients skills that they will need to manage their
own lives effectively.
 Clients have a direct role in their own treatment. Techniques aimed
at self-change tend to increase involvement and commitment to
their own treatment.
Token
Economy
 Distribution of "tokens" or other indicators of reinforcement on
desired behaviors. The tokens can later be exchanged for privileges,
food, or other reinforcers.
 Can be used with Psych ward patients.
Aversion
Therapy
 Patient is exposed to a stimulus while simultaneously being
subjected to some form of discomfort.
 This conditioning is intended to cause the patient to associate the

11. MAIN
PSYCHOLOGISTS
Wilhelm Wundt
Jean Piaget
Wolfgang Kohler
Edward Tolman
Kurt Lewin
Normal
Behaviour:
A person’s thoughts are responsible for their behaviour. If the
thoughts and his mental processes are not harmful in any way, he
shows normal behaviour.
Abnormal Maladaptive behaviour is caused by faulty and irrational
stimulus with unpleasant sensations in order to stop the specific
behavior.
EVALUATION OF BEHAVIOURISM
Merits:  Scientific theory- based on empirical research
 Behaviourism is based upon observable behaviour, so it is easier to
quantify and collect data and information when conducting
research.
 Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioural
intervention, behaviour analysis, token economies and discrete
trial training are often very useful in changing maladaptive or
harmful behaviours in both children and adults.
Demerits:  Its theories of classical and operant conditioning cannot account
for the production of spontaneous, novel or creative behaviour.
 These theories are based on animal research- we can’t compare
animals to humans.
 Many of behaviourist theories have come from being tested on
animals. This makes the findings less valid because humans are so
much more complex than animals.
 Sometimes behavioural therapies for disorders cannot actually
cure someone, only remove certain behaviours caused by the
disorder.
3. COGNITIVE
THEORIES

12. Behaviour: cognitions.
It is the way you think about a problem, rather than the problem
itself that causes mental disorders.
Key Features:  Examines internal mental processes, such as creativity, perception,
thinking, problem solving, memory, and language.
 How information is attended to, perceived, analyzed, interpreted,
encoded and retrieved.
 The mind works in a way similar to a computer: inputting, storing
and retrieving data
 Kohler’s Insight Theory-
 Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of
perception.
 When a chimp was faced with the problem of reaching fruit hung
from the ceiling, he perceived the problem in a new way and
solved it, using the objects in the room.
 The chimp learned to stack boxes to reach the fruit, and when the
fruit was just out of reach the chimp would use a stick to retrieve
it.
 Tolman Cognitive Map (Latent Learning)-
 Cognitive map: an internal representation (or image) of external
environmental feature or landmark
 By using this internal representation of a physical space they could
get to the goal by knowing where it is in a complex of
environmental features
 Latent learning: learning which is not apparent in the learner's
behavior at the time of learning, but which manifests later when a
suitable motivation and circumstances appear.
 Seligman ''learned helplessness”
 It occurs when an animal is repeatedly subjected to an aversive
stimulus that it cannot escape.
 Eventually, the animal will stop trying to avoid the stimulus and
behave as if it is utterly helpless to change the situation.
 Even when opportunities to escape are presented, this learned
helplessness will prevent any action.
 George Kelly's Personal construct Theory
 Can be seen as a meta-theory, or a theory about theories.
 It holds that people anticipate events by the meanings or
interpretations that they place on those events. Kelly called these
interpretations personal constructs.
Research
Methods:
 Experimental design- a researcher manipulates a variable in order
to see what effect it has on another variable. A way of studying

13. this would be to take a group of people and randomly assign them
to two different groups.
 Quasi- Experimental design- refers to a situation where the
researcher is studying naturally occurring groups. For example, if
a researcher wishes to compare men's and women's performance
on maths problems, then he or she is unable to actually
manipulate the sex of the participants. All that can be done is to
obtain some men and some women and then compare their maths
performance.
 Naturalistic Observation- to observe people in real-life settings,
such as at home or at work. Observations may be done with the
knowledge and consent of those being watched, or they may be
covert, in which case people are not aware that they are being
watched.
 Psychobiological Research- Some researchers investigate the
relationship between cognition and the brain's structures and
activities. This is psychobiological research. One way of looking at
such relationships is to conduct post mortem studies
 Case studies- Case studies are intensive investigations of
individuals, usually people of exceptional ability or people with
some sort of deficit. One of the most famous case studies in
cognitive psychology is Henry Gustav Molaison (1926-2008), until
his death known only as HM.
 Introspection- a highly practiced form of self-examination.
Therapies: Albert Ellis' Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)-
 Emphasizes reorganizing cognitive and emotional functions,
redefining problems, and changing attitudes in order to develop
more acceptable patterns of behavior.
 REBT is focused on helping clients change irrational beliefs. (The
ABC Model)
 Aaron Beck's Cognitive Therapy (CT)-
 Similar to Ellis’s, but has been most widely used in cases of
depression
 The therapist also guide clients to question and challenge their
dysfunctional thoughts, try out new interpretations, and ultimately
apply alternative ways of thinking in their daily lives.
 Donald Meichenbaum's Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT)-
 Self-instructional, or "self-talk," approach to cognitive-
behavioural therapy.
 This approach focuses on changing what people say to
themselves, both internally and out loud.

14.  It is based on the belief that an individual's actions follow
directly from this self-talk.
 The technique used to accomplish this is self-instructional inner
dialogue, a method of talking through a problem or situation as it
occurs.
Merits:  Easily combined with other approaches. Cognitive-Behavioural
Therapy is a popular and successful form of treatment for issues
such as obsessive compulsive disorder.
 Takes into account the internal, invisible thought processes that
affect our behaviour, unlike the behavioural approach.
 Uses scientific research methods to study mental processes.
Demerits:  Depends largely on controlled experiments to observe human
behaviour, which may lack ecological validity (being compared to
real-life behaviour).
 Does not take into account genetic factors; for example hereditary
correlations of mental disorders.
 Reductionist to an extent, although case studies are taken into
account, the behavioural approach attempts to apply the scientific
view to human behaviour, which may be argued to be unique to
each individual.
PSYCHOLOGIST Albert Bandura
Normal
Behaviour:
According to Bandura, people learn by observing and imitating
others. If a person sees normal behaviour in his surrounding, he
shows normal behaviour.
Abnormal
Behaviour:
If a person observes and imitates aggressive and violent behaviour,
he is likely to show abnormal behaviour.
Key features:  Reciprocal determinism: The world and a person’s behavior
cause each other.
 Observational Learning- Children pay attention to some of these
people (models) and encode their behavior. At a later time they
may imitate (i.e. copy) the behavior they have observed.
 Person, Environment, and Behavior—triadic reciprocity
 Components of Observational Learning
 Attention
4. SOCIAL COGNITIVE
THEORY

15.  Retention
 Motor Reproduction
 Motivation
 Self Efficacy- the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and
execute the courses of action required to manage prospective
situations
 Intrinsic Reinforcement- a way to reward yourself or self
motivation like pride, satisfaction, and a sense of
accomplishment.
Research
methods:
Bobo Doll Experiment
 There were a total of eight experimental groups containing 36 girls
and 36 boys.
 Out of these participants, 24 were assigned to a control group that
received no treatment.
 The rest of the children were then divided into two groups of 24
participants each.
 One of the experimental groups was then exposed to aggressive
models, while the other 24 children were exposed to non-
aggressive models.
Before conducting the experiment, Bandura also assessed the
children's existing levels of aggression. Groups were then matched
equally so that they had average levels of aggression.
Children exposed to the violent model tended to imitate the exact
behavior they had observed when the adult was no longer present.
Merits:  Theory is well grounded in research. Its terms are very tightly
and clearly defined and so they lend themselves well to
empirical research.
 Accurate picture explaining how behaviour is learned.
 Offers a way to integrate social and cognitive theories.
 Explains a large number of behaviours
Demerits:  Since data was collected immediately, it is also difficult to know
what the long-term impact might have been.
 Study itself is unethical. By manipulating the children into
behaving aggressively, they argue, the experimenters were
essentially teaching the children to be aggressive.
 Because the experiment took place in a lab setting, it may not be
indicative of what takes place in the real world.

16. PSYCHOLOGIST Abraham Maslow(1908-1970)
Normal
Behaviour:
According to Maslow, if a person’s hierarchical needs are fulfilled, he is
likely to show normal behaviour.
Abnormal
Behaviour:
If the hierarchical needs are not satisfied in some way, the person
shows abnormal behaviour.
Key features:  Theory of Human Motivation- ‘Human beings are motivated by
unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower needs (deficiency needs)
need to be satisfied before higher needs can be satisfied.’
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs-
 Physiological needs: air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep.
 Safety Needs: protection from elements, security, order, law,
stability, freedom from fear.
 Love and Belonging Needs: friendship, intimacy, affection and love
- from work group, family, friends, romantic relationships.
 Esteem Needs: achievement, mastery, independence, status,
dominance, prestige, self-respect, respect from others.
 Self-Actualization Needs: realizing personal potential, self-
fulfilment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.
 Aesthetic Needs- desire for beauty and order, and some people
have much stronger aesthetic needs than do others. When people
fail to meet their aesthetic needs, they become sick.
 Cognitive Needs-the desire to know, to understand, and to be
curious. Knowledge is a prerequisite for each of the five conative
needs. Also, people who are denied knowledge and kept in
ignorance become sick, paranoid, and depressed.
 Neurotic Needs-a desire to dominate, to inflict pain, or to subject
oneself to the will of another person. Neurotic needs are non-
productive and do not
foster health.
 Jonah Complex: fear of being or doing one's best, a condition that
all of us have to some extent.
Merits:  Many educational implications.
 First theory of motivation to which many people they are exposed.
 its intuitive nature: it simply makes sense that one may not be able
5. HUMANISTIC
APPROACH

17. to enjoy higher-order needs when they have no place to live and
nothing to eat
 Shifted the focus of behavior to the individual / whole person
rather than the unconscious mind, genes, observable behavior
Demerits:  Maslow's hierarchy lacks scientific support
 The theory is somewhat complex, with four dimensions of needs
and the possibility of unconsciously motivated behavior.
 On its ability to organize knowledge and guide action, the theory
rates quite high; on its simplicity and internal consistency, it rates
only average.
PSYCHOLOGIST Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Normal
Behaviour:
If self image, ideal self and true self coincides, the person shows
normal behaviour.
Abnormal
Behaviour:
If there is a vast difference between ideal self and true self,
incongruence occurs and the person shows abnormal behaviour.
Key features:  Focused on growth and fulfillment of individuals
 genuineness
 acceptance
 empathy
 Phenomenological field- all behavior is determined by the
conscious self and can only be understood if the researcher sees
the world through the individual's eyes and mind.
 Self worth and Positive regard
 Unconditional positive regard is blanket acceptance and
support of a person regardless of what the person says or does.
 Conditional positive regard would be the acceptance and
support of a person given that they meet the assumed
conditions.
 Concept of Congruence and incongruence:
 Self Image
 Ideal Self
 True Self
 Fully Functioning person
 Openness to experience
 Existential living (here-and-now)
 Trust Feelings

18. Research Methods in Humanistic approach
Q-Sort Method: The systematic study of participant viewpoints. Q-methodology is
used to investigate the perspectives of participants who represent
different stances on an issue, by having participants rank and sort a
series of statements.
Case Study: Case studies are intensive investigations of individuals which give
psychological researchers the possibility to investigate cases, which
could not possibly be engineered in research laboratories.
Informal
Interviews:
Researchers can ask different types of questions which in turn
generate different types of data. The interviewer must ensure that
they take special care when interviewing vulnerable groups, such as
the children.
Open-ended
Questionnaires:
Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They
can be carried out face to face, by telephone or post. Open-ended
questions enable the respondent to answer in as much detail as he/she
likes in his/her own words.
 Experiential freedom
 Creativity
Merits:  Rogers did more scientific research on psychotherapy than had
ever been undertaken before.
 His ‘ non-directive’, ‘client- centered’ approach to counselling and
psychotherapy became the backbone of the therapists’ methods.
Demerits:  It was reasonably effective with less severe disorders but
ineffective with severe mental disorders
 The thought that the client could know best and could solve his
own problems was not one that they could approve that easily.
THERAPIES
Gestalt therapy Focuses on the skills and techniques that permit an individual to be
more aware of their feelings.
Understands what patients are feeling and how they are feeling
rather than to identify what is causing their feelings.
Gestalt therapy focuses on the "here and now."

19. Client-centered
therapy
Provides a supportive environment in which clients can re-
establish their true identity
Build trust between the client and therapist by creating a
nonjudgmental and supportive environment for the clients .
PSYCHOLOGIST Gordon Allport (1897-1967)
Normal
Behaviour
Psychologically normal persons are more likely to engage in
proactive behaviours. Allport listed six criteria for normal behaviour:
an extension of the sense of self
warm relationships with others
emotional security or self-acceptance
a realistic view of the world
insight and humour
a unifying philosophy of life.
Abnormal
Behaviour:
People with negative traits like aggressive, violent shows abnormal
behaviour.
Key Features:  Invented 4,500 personality traits
 The proprium- Core of the personality
 Types of traits-
 Cardinal trait - trait that dominates the individual's life,
personality and behaviors. This type of trait is uncommon
because people usually have more than 1 trait that shapes
their lives.
 Central trait - These are traits that everyone has to one
degree or another.
 Secondary trait - These characteristics are unique to the
individual
 Common vs. Individual traits
 Functional Autonomy- Allport didn’t believe in looking too much
into a person’s past in order to understand his present.
 Stages of Self Development
 Self-identity also develops in the first two years
6. TYPE AND TRAIT
THEORIES

20.  Self-esteem develops between two and four years old
 Self-extension develops between four and six
 Self-image also develops between four and six.
 Rational coping is learned predominantly in the years from six till
twelve
 Propriate striving doesn’t usually begin till after twelve years old
Research
Methods:
 Idiographic and Nomothetic method: Based on a false dichotomy
Traditional psychology relies on nomothetic science, which seeks
general laws from a study of groups of people, but Allport used
idiographic or morphogenic procedures that study the single case.
 The Diaries of Marion Taylor
These diaries-along with descriptions of Marion Taylor by her
mother, younger sister, favorite teacher, friends, and a neighbour
provided the Allports with a large quantity of material that could
be studied using morphogenic methods.
 Letters from Jenny
Jenny had written a series of 301 letters to Gordon and Ada
Allport, whose son had been a roommate of Jenny's son. Two of
Gordon Allport's students, Alfred Baldwin and Jeffrey Paige used a
personal structure analysis and factor analysis respectively, while
Allport used a common sense approach to discern Jenny's
personality structure as revealed by her letters.
Merits:  Strict reliance on objective and statistical data.
 Has no bias compared to other theories.
 Describes each and every trait.
 Easy to use and have a number of assessment devices.
 Provides an easy to understand continuum that gives a large
amount of information about a person's personality about the
self and the world.
Demerits:  Poor predictor of the future. This trait theory is stuck explaining
about present events rather than looking towards the past or
future.
 Does not address development of the traits. This theory seeks to
explain or list what traits people have throughout the duration of
their life.
 Does not provide a way to change bad traits. Measures the traits
but explains no way how to change them.
PSYCHOLOGIST Hans Eysenck (1916-1997)

21. Normal
Behaviour:
People who have well modulated nervous systems with low levels of
neuroticism and psychoticism shows normal behavior.
Abnormal
Behaviour:
People with very reactive nervous systems and low levels of cortical
excitation show abnormal behavior.
Key features:  Reduced personality traits to 3.
 Based on physiology and genetics- most fundamental personality
characteristics are largely inherited
 Personality types
 Choleric (High N, High E )—an assertive, leader-like person.
 Melancholic (High N, Low E )—a cautious and introverted type.
 Sanguine (Low N, High E )—the sociable and charismatic type
 Phlegmatic (Low N, Low E) —a consistent, calm person.
 PEN Theory
 Psychoticism: A person high on this trait tend to have difficulty
dealing with reality and may be antisocial, hostile, non-empathetic
and manipulative.
 Extraversion/Introversion: a person high in introversion might be
quiet and reserved, while an individual high in extraversion might be
sociable and outgoing.
 Neuroticism/Emotional Stability: a person high in neuroticism has
high tendency to become upset or emotional, while stability refers
to the tendency to remain emotionally constant.
 Hierarchy of Traits
• Specific Responses and Behaviors.
• Habits: Cluster of Specific Behavior (Gregariousness).
• Traits: Collection of Related Habits (Friendliness).
• Supertraits (Extraversion).
Research
Methods:
 Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) is a questionnaire to
assess the personality traits of a person, with the result sometimes
referred to as the Eysenck's personality Inventory or (EPI).
 Correlational research can be used as the first step before an
experiment begins. It can also be used if experiments cannot be
conducted. It determines if a relationship exists between two or
more variables, and if so, to what degree the relationship occurs
 Experimental methods: an investigation in which the independent
variable is manipulated (or changed) in order to cause a change in
the dependent variable

22. Merits:  Use of arousal as a mediating variable allows personality to be
linked to many qualitatively di€erent response indices.
 The Pen model offers causal explanations, as well as simply
describing personality traits
 Offers a strong experimental approach to the study of
personality, which means it is a testable theory and as a result of
this has served as a good role model for many other personality
theories.
Demerits:  Criticised due to its failure to produce evidence that introverts and
extroverts condition differently.
 Personality traits are not a good predictor of future behaviours.
 In Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), yes and no questions
could not possibly be enough to even begin to understand the
different aspects of personality.
PSYCHOLOGIST Raymond Cattell
Normal
Behaviour:
Everybody has some degree of every trait, according to Cattell.. A
person high on positive traits shows normal behaviour.
Abnormal
Behaviour:
Out of the 16 key personality factors, a person high on negative traits
shows abnormal behaviour.
Key Features:  Author or co-author of more than 500 books and articles.
 Reduced Allport’s 4,500 personality traits to 171.
 By using factor analysis to identify traits that are related to one
another. By doing this, he was able to reduce his list to 16 key
personality factors
 Types of intelligence
 Fluid Intelligence: peaks in adolescence and begins to decline
progressively beginning around age 30 or 40.
 Crystallized Intelligence: continues to grow throughout adulthood.
 MAVA( Multiple abstract variance analysis)- advanced statistical
techniques to the study of intelligence
 Categories of Traits
 Surface and Source Traits
 Environmental-Mold Traits
 Temperament traits
 Ability Traits

23. THERAPY
Eclectic
Psychotherapy:
A therapeutic approach that incorporates a variety of therapeutic
principles and philosophies in order to create the ideal treatment
program to meet the specific needs of the patient or client.
An eclectic therapist uses whatever approach seems appropriate.
 Motivational traits
Ergs
Meta-ergs
 Group syntality construct (the "personality" of a group)
Research
methods:
 Q-Data: Questionnaires and tests-
 16 PF Personality Questionnaire and is still frequently used
today, especially in business for employee testing and selection,
career counselling and marital counselling.
 The test is composed of 160 forced-choice questions ( 10 for
each factor) in which the respondent must choose one of three
different alternatives.
 L-Data, the L for Life Record: is obtained by gathering life history
of person (personal records), such as grade point average,
driving history, letters of recommendation, etc.
 T-Data/Experimental data the T for test objective test data
(reaction time, etc.)
 R-technique or nomothetic or studies groups
 P-technique or idiographic or studies individuals
Merits:  His empirical findings lead the way for investigation and later
discovery of the 'Big Five' dimensions of personality.
 Scientific theory due to empirical research.
 Applied Value
Demerits:  Despite many attempts his theory has never been entirely
replicated.
 16 PF does not measure the factors which it purports to
measure at a primary level
 In factor analysis, the Answer You Get Depends on the
Questions You Ask-The factors that appear can only come from
the answers to the questions you ask. If you do not ask about
sleep habits, for example, then no factor related to sleep habits
will appear.

24. THE BIG FIVE FACTORS
Openness(O) Imaginative, curious, creative and may have unconventional
beliefs and values.
Conscientiousness(C) Hardworking, reliable, ambitious, punctual and self-directed.
Extraversion(E) Active, sociable, person-oriented, talkative, optimistic,
empathetic
Agreeableness(A) Good-natured, kind-hearted, helpful, altruistic and trusting.
Neuroticism (N) Emotionally unstable and may even develop psychological
distress
PSYCHOLOGISTS N. N. Sengupta
Durganand Sinha
Amit Abraham
Gunamudian David Boaz
Sudhir Kakar
Girishwar Misra
H. Narayan Murthy
Indra Sen
Devendra Singh
Normal
Behaviour
The person high on sattva guna and low on Rajas and Tamas guna
shows normal behaviour.
Abnormal
Behaviour:
The person high on Tamas and Rajas guna and who are involved
more in kama, krodha, moha, lobha and ahamkar shows abnormal
behaviour.
Key Features:  Focus is achieving well-being.
 Deals with the inner state of a person, taking consciousness as
the primary subject matter of study.
 The jiva (living organism) has been characterized as
 Jnata- One who knows
 Bhokta-One who feels pleasure and pain
 Karta- One who acts
 three main forms of yoga are suggested:
 Jnana (Knowledge)
 Bhakti (Devotion)
 Karma (Action)
7. INDIAN PERSPECTIVE OF
PSYCHOLOGY

25.  The hallmark of the Indian perspective is inner-directedness and
spirituality
 Three types of gunas:
 Sattva- Cleanliness, truth discipline, mental equilibrium,
determination,detachment, etc.
 Rajas- Desire for sense gratification, envy, dissatisfaction,
materialistic
 Tamas- Mental imbalance, anger, arrogance, depression,
procrastination- feelings mentality of helplessness
 Types of meditation
 Focusing- concentrative meditation
 Opening Up- mindfulness meditation
 Asking- contemplative meditation
 Yoga- union of mind ,body & Soul
 Asthangayoga
 Yama (Principles)
 Niyama (Personal Disciplines)
 Asana (Yoga Positions or Yogic Postures)
 Pranayama (Yogic Breathing)
 Pratyahara (Withdrawal of Senses)
 Dharana (Concentration on Object)
 Dhyan (Meditation)
 Samadhi (Salvation)
 5 forces lead to the weakening of atman or True Self.
 Kama
 Krodha
 Ahamkara
 Lobha
 Moha
 Positive Psychology: the study of Sattva guna, making use of
Rajas guna and managing tamas guna.
Research
methods:
 First person & Second person: Methods in Indian perspective
work well within guru (second person) – pupil (first person)
tradition. Methods of yoga and meditation have been used for
centuries to test, experiment and empirically validate higher
mental states.
 Third person approach: A person outside the physical process or
phenomenon to be observed (e.g., voltage, duration, weight), a
“third person” is able to make quite accurate judgments. This
“third person” could in principle be any observer, but in practice,
especially if some theoretical knowledge is required to
understand what is going on, third persons have to undergo
substantial training.

26.  Interpretive Qualitative research with stringent procedure.
Series of researches for understanding whole concept
 The Vedic Personality Inventory (VPI)- the most extensively
researched and validated psychological assessment tool based on
the three gunas.
 The Big Five Inventory (BFI)- a self-report inventory designed to
measure the Big Five dimensions. It is quite brief for a
multidimensional personality inventory (44 items total), and
consists of short phrases with relatively accessible vocabulary.
Merits:  Yoga and meditation techniques make a huge and permanent
difference to one’s life.
 Indian psychology has made valuable contributions to the
psychological understanding of all human beings, irrespective of
their descent or cultural background.
Demerits:  The research methods are not thoroughly understandable by
the ordinary mind.
 Most of the research is done on college students but they
cannot be the representative for all segments of our population
Therapies: Yoga:
 Yoga comprises a wide range of mind/body practices, from
postural and breathing exercises to deep relaxation and
meditation.
 Yoga therapy tailors these to the health needs of the individual.
 It helps to promote all-round positive health, as well as assisting
particular medical conditions.
Ayurvedic Therapy:
 Ayurveda is the ancient Indian Health Science developed through
centuries’ long research works of sages, who were eminent
scholars.
 "Ayurveda" is not only the system to cure diseases but also a
method to achieve "Perfect Health’’.
Meditational Therapy:
 The benefits of meditation / meditation therapy are manifold.
 Meditation is a mental exercise, in which one focuses on breath
or object or sound, in order to increase awareness of the present,
to enhance one’s personality and bring about spiritual growth.