Argumentation in science and assessment of scientific information, critical thinking.

1. LIA
LIBERAL EDUCATION,
INFORMATION
ASSESSMENT AND
ARGUMENTATION IN
SCIENCE
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

2. LIA Presentation
Andreas Quale
Terje Kristensen
Ketil Mathiassen
Anders Isnes
Department of Teacher Education
and School Development
University of Oslo
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

3. The Project
Research project, addressing pre-service
teacher education:
– teacher trainees with B.Sc. or M.Sc. in
physics/chemistry/biology
– funded by the Norwegian Ministry of
Education
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

4. Participating researcher groups
University of Bergen University of Oslo
Stein Dankert Kolstø Andreas Quale
Marit Ulvik Anders Isnes
Erik Arnesen Terje Kristensen
Anne Sissel Tonning Ketil Mathiassen
Idar Mestad
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

5. Assessment of scientific information
• Important part of general education:
– genetic engineering
– chemical pollution
– benefits / risks of nuclear power
– exploitation of (renewable or not) natural resources
– etc.
• Neglected in the teaching of science in our schools..?
• General public invited to:
– participate in media discourse
– vote for policies / courses of action
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

6. Learning goals
• experience in planning/implementing open experiments
using ICT tools for gathering/processing of data and
presentation of results
• ability to assess methods for communicating the nature of
science to the students
• use communication tools for distributed discussions, to
promote learning
• understand the concept of a liberal education, as related to
educational policies
• develop consciousness of the interplay of observation and
argumentation, in the production of scientific knowledge
• ability to assess contentious scientific propositions:
conceptual basis, scientific validity, logical argumentation,
use of established/not-established science knowledge
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

7. Terminology
Two meanings of education (in English):
– broad knowledge (of many subjects) - “he is an educated person"
– a specialized subject training - "…his education is in physics"
In German:
– Bildung (broad general knowledge)
vs.
– Ausbildung (specific subject training)
“Liberal education“ = Bildung (broad and general)
↓
ability to cope with a variety of societal issues, without expert
knowledge/training
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

8. Primary research question
Argumentation in science
 (connection?)
Assessment of scientific
information
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

9. Theoretical framework
A constructivist approach to learning:
– an individual process: interaction between
preconceptions and environment
– and a social process: learners construct mental
representations in a dialogue
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

10. Teaching – two meanings (Bakhtin):
• Persuading – using rhetoric and manipulation
• Convincing – conveying insight and understanding
• Reality – a process, not a result (Wittgenstein):
– we can influence the world, not just be governed by it
• Not part of traditional school education:
– passes on the established truths of society, to the next generation
– a teacher-learner dialogue becomes illusory
– the learner learns to answer what the teacher wants to hear..!
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

11. Culturedness vs adaptation
• The adapted person
– accepts external constraints without question
– settles well in a world defined/organized by others
• The cultured person
– can think critically, ask fundamental question
– trusts in his own rationality
• A liberal education (Hellesnes)
– encourages critical thinking in the learners
– a prerequisite for democracy
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

12. Argumentation in science
Traditionally, science teaching has paid little attention to argument and
controversy. This has given the false impression of science as the
unproblematic collection of facts about the world (Driver et al.)…
• Core science:
– established / agreed-on knowledge, taught in school
• Frontier science:
– research-driven, little or no consensus
– encountered in media, as contentious issues
• LIA:
– exposes the teacher trainees to such issues to incorporate them into
science teaching

– learners get a more realistic picture of science
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

13. LIA - organization
60 teacher trainees (universities of Oslo/Bergen)
Two investigative modules:
M1: Trainees plan and perform open experiments, argue the
chosen strategies and conclusions. (Started second half
of 2001. Reported here.)
M2: Trainees study controversial societal/scientific issues,
as presented in the media. (Started first half of 2002.)
LIA: expected to conclude by the end of 2003
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

14. LIA-M1: organization
• Charting trainees' preconceptions
• Open experiment:
– goals / methods ill defined at the outset
• Lab reports of the experiment, with discussion:
results, scientific knowledge gained
Goal:
to understand the role of argumentation in
justifying scientific claims
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

15. Analysis
Based on three sets of data:
• questionnaires, given to trainees before experiment
• lab reports of experiment
• discussions in groups, after experiment
To explore:
• preconceptions about culturedness
• its relevance for school science
• trainees’ ability to plan, perform and discuss strategies and
results of open experiments
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

16. Some preconceptions
( percentages: approximate, not statistical..!)
• What is a "liberal" education?
– 80 %: must cover a wide variety of subjects
– 50 %: must provide knowledge of philosophy/arts,
and promote tolerance/democracy
– 40 %: must be achievable for everybody,
irrespective of intellectual abilities/preferences
• Is this notion relevant for school science?
– > 90 %: declined to answer!
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

17. Goals for school science,
to promote a liberal education?
50 %:
– an understanding of how the laws of nature function
– training in assessing information systematically
– become curious about natural phenomena
20 %:
– ability to argue logically should be strengthened
– learn how science has developed, up to present stage
5 %:
– learn to work independently
– become interested in societal issues
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

18. Comparison with
non-science trainees
The same question (as to whether the propositions
in the list represent reliable knowledge)

Teacher trainees, in the teaching of foreign
languages:
– a markedly higher trust in all these propositions
– except “biodynamic vegetables”  equal scores
Encouraging:
– science-trained students more critical / sceptical than
students trained in non-scientific fields (..??)
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

19. Scientific reliability of
media claims
Most (> 50 %) deemed as unreliable knowledge:
– nuclear energy causes less environmental problems than fossil energy
– one glass of red wine per day is good for your health
– genetic technology will give us more healthy domestic animals
A large majority (> 75 %) deemed as reliable knowledge:
– a reduction of the ozone layer leads to increased risk of skin cancer.
Evenly divided (50 - 50):
– the cause of climate problem: increased release of greenhouse gases
– radiation from high-voltage power lines constitutes a health hazard
– irradiation of food products can harm the consumer
– biodynamic vegetables are more nutritious than traditionally cultivated
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

20. The open experiment case
At a party there will be served hot and cold drinks.
Question: What kind of drinking cup is best suited, for keeping the
content beverage at a desirable temperature?
The cups provided for consideration: made of cardboard, plastic or
polystyrene, both with and without a lid.
Need to design a strategy (no predefined "correct way ")
– specify what is sought, and decide what to measure
– formulate hypotheses about relevant variables
– choose experimental set-up, and make observations
– use the observed data to test hypotheses
– formulate conclusions, and argue validity of the results
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

21. On open experiments
Rarely given as assignments in our science classes
More common are closed experiments:
– method and expected results are dictated by the
teacher or textbook (the pendulum exp.)
Goal of LIA, for the trainees – to achieve:
– experience with planning and implementing open
experiments
– awareness of interplay between observational data and
argumentation, in producing scientific knowledge
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

22. Planning the experiment
• The problem - identifying what
is to be done:
– …we will try to find out …
• Hypotheses - formulated and
argued in group:
– …we think … may happen (will
be observed), because…
• Procedure - identifying
relevant variables:
– …the presence/absence of a lid
– …the material of the cup
– …the volume of content
– …etc…
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

23. Variables
• Which variables to be kept constant? And why?
• Which are most influential in determining observed
results? Why?
– …we expect X to have a large influence, because…
– …the influence of Y will probably be negligible, because…
• The plan is argued, in the group:
– …our plan is a good one, because…
– …our results will be valid, because…
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

24. Performance
• Data logging equipment used to monitor
temperatures:
– some compared cardboard cups
with/without a lid
– some compared materials (cardboard vs.
plastic).
• Temperature – starting value and range:
– chosen by each group
• Group report, documenting:
– experimental set-up
– observed data
– arguments and conclusions
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

25. Performance, observed
• None tried to ascertain usual serving temperature for
coffee/tea, and how it varies during consumption
↓
choices of starting temperature and range rather arbitrary
• Very few used terms from physics, in their
communication:
– heat loss, energy transfer, ... not natural in their vocabulary
• Practical implementations were various:
– some made creative choices of materials and strategies;
– others chose just the simplest solution
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

26. Reports: categories of analysis
Exploring the ability of the trainees to:
• formulate problem and hypotheses
– experience-driven / theory-driven
• plan an open experiment:
– identify relevant variables, and assess their influence
– identify variables unlikely to influence results
– identify variables that cannot be held constant
– vary one variable at a time, and observe effect
– reflect on methodical problems / uncertainties in measurements
• use scientific knowledge to interpret observations:
– use scientific terms in planning and discussing results
– present results in a clear and convincing way
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

27. Performance, observed
Hypotheses and problem description:
Using imprecise formulations from "everyday
life", rarely based on scientific
theory/concepts:
– …keeping the warmth (or cold)...
– …conserving the temperature…
– …exchange of temperature…
– …spreading of cold…
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

28. Identifying and assessing variables
Could identify the most important variables – mostly without scientific
grounds:
• None reflected over initial "direction of temp. change"
– sensors at higher/lower temperature than liquid beverage
• Some reflected on placement of sensors, and on stirring the liquid,
– without scientific argumentation:
• (effect of stirring on heat loss is not considered)
• Many discussed shape and material of cup, but with no mention of
relevant concepts:
– heat capacity
– evaporation heat
– heat loss through conduction / convection
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

29. Performance, observed
• Measured values given as temperature differences:
– (not as changes of temperature with time)
– (sometimes even as percentage change of temperature!)
• Imprecise statements:
– …temperature exchanges are faster,
when temperature differences are larger..!
• Comments/criticisms often vague / blandly favourable:
– …’nice report', … ‘the layout looks good', etc.
• Not addressed:
– imprecise use of concepts / argumentation
– incorrect statements (confusing heat and temperature)
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

30. Some preliminary conclusions
Teacher trainees:
• need to develop a conscious attitude toward using open
experiments in their science teaching
Open experiments:
• stimulate language precision, correct use of terminology
• gives opportunity to address hypotheses / argumentation
• stimulate understanding of the dynamic nature of science
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development

31. URL
• http://www.ils.uio.no/studier/naturfag/ppu/
Dia/LIA-pres_ver_final.htm
LIA
Dep. of Teacher Education and School Development