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1
PSYCHOLOGY
(9th Edition)
David Myers
PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2010
2
Personality
Chapter 13
3
Personality
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
 Exploring the Unconscious
 The Neo-Freudian and
Psychodynamic Theories
 Assessing Unconscious Processes
 Evaluating the Psychoanalytic
Perspective
4
The Humanistic Perspective
 Abraham Maslow’s Self-Actualizing
Person
 Carl Roger’s Person-Centered
Perspective
 Assessing the Self
 Evaluating the Humanistic
Perspective
5
The Trait Perspective
 Exploring Traits
 Assessing Traits
 The Big Five Factors
 Evaluating the Trait Perspective
6
The Social-Cognitive Perspective
 Reciprocal Influences
 Personal Control
 Assessing Behavior in Situations
 Evaluating the Social-Cognitive
Perspective
Exploring the Self
 The Benefits of Self-Esteem
 Self-Serving Bias
7
Personality
An individual’s characteristic pattern of
thinking, feeling, and acting.
Each dwarf has a distinct personality.
8
Psychoanalytic Perspective
In his clinical practice,
Freud encountered
patients suffering from
nervous disorders.
Their complaints
could not be explained
in terms of purely
physical causes.
Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939)
CulverPictures
9
Psychodynamic Perspective
Freud’s clinical
experience led him to
develop the first
comprehensive theory
of personality, which
included the
unconscious mind,
psychosexual stages,
and defense
mechanisms. Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939)
CulverPictures
10
Exploring the Unconscious
A reservoir (unconscious mind) of mostly
unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and
memories. Freud asked patients to say whatever
came to their minds (free association) in order to
tap the unconscious.
http://www.english.upenn.edu
11
Dream Analysis
Another method to analyze the unconscious
mind is through interpreting manifest and
latent contents of dreams.
The Nightmare, Henry Fuseli (1791)
12
Psychoanalysis
The process of free
association (chain of
thoughts) leads to
painful, embarrassing
unconscious memories.
Once these memories
are retrieved and
released (treatment:
psychoanalysis) the
patient feels better.
13
Model of Mind
The mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden,
and below the surface lies the unconscious
mind. The preconscious stores temporary
memories.
14
Personality Structure
Personality develops as a result of our efforts to
resolve conflicts between our biological impulses
(id) and social restraints (superego).
15
Id, Ego and Superego
The Id unconsciously strives to satisfy basic
sexual and aggressive drives, operating on the
pleasure principle, demanding immediate
gratification.
The ego functions as the “executive” and
mediates the demands of the id and superego.
The superego provides standards for judgment
(the conscience) and for future aspirations.
16
Personality Development
Freud believed that personality formed during
the first few years of life divided into
psychosexual stages. During these stages the
id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on pleasure
sensitive body areas called erogenous zones.
17
Psychosexual Stages
Freud divided the development of personality
into five psychosexual stages.
18
Oedipus Complex
A boy’s sexual desire for his mother and
feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival
father. A girl’s desire for her father is called the
Electra complex.
19
Identification
Children cope with
threatening feelings by
repressing them and
by identifying with the
rival parent. Through
this process of
identification, their
superego gains
strength that
incorporates their
parents’ values.
FromtheK.Vanderveldeprivatecollection
20
Defense Mechanisms
The ego’s protective methods of reducing
anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.
1. Repression banishes anxiety-arousing
thoughts, feelings, and memories from
consciousness.
2. Regression leads an individual faced with
anxiety to retreat to a more infantile
psychosexual stage.
21
Defense Mechanisms
3. Reaction Formation causes the ego to
unconsciously switch unacceptable
impulses into their opposites. People may
express feelings of purity when they may be
suffering anxiety from unconscious feelings
about sex.
4. Projection leads people to disguise their
own threatening impulses by attributing
them to others.
22
Defense Mechanisms
5. Rationalization offers self-justifying
explanations in place of the real, more
threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s
actions.
6. Displacement shifts sexual or aggressive
impulses toward a more acceptable or less
threatening object or person, redirecting
anger toward a safer outlet.
23
The Neo-Freudians
Like Freud, Adler
believed in childhood
tensions. However, these
tensions were social in
nature and not sexual. A
child struggles with an
inferiority complex
during growth and
strives for superiority
and power. Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
NationalLibraryofMedicine
24
The Neo-Freudians
Like Adler, Horney
believed in the social
aspects of childhood
growth and
development. She
countered Freud’s
assumption that
women have weak
superegos and suffer
from “penis envy.”
Karen Horney (1885-1952)
TheBettmannArchive/Corbis
25
The Neo-Freudians
Jung believed in the
collective unconscious,
which contained a
common reservoir of
images derived from our
species’ past. This is why
many cultures share
certain myths and images
such as the mother being
a symbol of nurturance. Carl Jung (1875-1961)
ArchiveoftheHistoryofAmericanPsychology/UniversityofAkron
26
Assessing Unconscious Processes
Evaluating personality from an unconscious
mind’s perspective would require a
psychological instrument (projective tests) that
would reveal the hidden unconscious mind.
27
Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT)
Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is a
projective test in which people express their inner
feelings and interests through the stories they make
up about ambiguous scenes.
LewMerrim/PhotoResearcher,Inc.
28
Rorschach Inkblot Test
The most widely used projective test uses a set
of 10 inkblots and was designed by Hermann
Rorschach. It seeks to identify people’s inner
feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the
blots.
LewMerrim/PhotoResearcher,Inc.
29
Projective Tests: Criticisms
Critics argue that projective tests lack both
reliability (consistency of results) and validity
(predicting what it is supposed to).
1. When evaluating the same patient, even
trained raters come up with different
interpretations (reliability).
2. Projective tests may misdiagnose a normal
individual as pathological (validity).
30
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic
Perspective
1. Personality develops throughout life and is
not fixed in childhood.
2. Freud underemphasized peer influence on
the individual, which may be as powerful
as parental influence.
3. Gender identity may develop before 5-6
years of age.
Modern Research
31
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic
Perspective
4. There may be other reasons for dreams
besides wish fulfillment.
5. Verbal slips can be explained on the basis of
cognitive processing of verbal choices.
6. Suppressed sexuality leads to psychological
disorders. Sexual inhibition has decreased,
but psychological disorders have not.
Modern Research
32
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic
Perspective
Freud's psychoanalytic theory rests on the
repression of painful experiences into the
unconscious mind.
The majority of children, death camp survivors,
and battle-scarred veterans are unable to
repress painful experiences into their
unconscious mind.
33
The Modern Unconscious Mind
Modern research shows the existence of non-
conscious information processing. This involves:
1. schemas that automatically control perceptions and
interpretations
2. the right-hemisphere activity that enables the split-brain
patient’s left hand to carry out an instruction the patient
cannot verbalize
3. parallel processing during vision and thinking
4. implicit memories
5. emotions that activate instantly without consciousness
6. self-concept and stereotypes that unconsciously influence
us
34
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic
Perspective
The scientific merits of Freud’s theory have
been criticized. Psychoanalysis is meagerly
testable. Most of its concepts arise out of clinical
practice, which are the after-the-fact
explanation.
35
Humanistic Perspective
By the 1960s, psychologists became discontent
with Freud’s negativity and the mechanistic
psychology of the behaviorists.
Abraham Maslow
(1908-1970)
Carl Rogers
(1902-1987)
http://www.ship.edu
36
Self-Actualizing Person
Maslow proposed that we as individuals are
motivated by a hierarchy of needs. Beginning
with physiological needs, we try to reach the
state of self-actualization—fulfilling our
potential.
http://www.ship.edu
TedPolumbaum/TimePix/GettyImages
37
Person-Centered Perspective
Carl Rogers also believed in an individual's self-
actualization tendencies. He said that
Unconditional Positive Regard is an attitude of
acceptance of others despite their failings.
MichaelRougier/LifeMagazine©TimeWarner,Inc.
38
Assessing the Self
All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an
answer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to Self-Concept.
In an effort to assess personality, Rogers asked
people to describe themselves as they would like
to be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If the
two descriptions were close the individual had a
positive self-concept.
39
Evaluating the Humanistic
Perspective
Humanistic psychology has a pervasive
impact on counseling, education, child-
rearing, and management with its
emphasis on a positive self-concept,
empathy, and the thought that people are
basically good and can improve.
40
Evaluating the Humanistic
Perspective
1. Concepts in humanistic psychology are vague and
subjective and lack scientific basis.
2. The individualism encouraged can lead to self-
indulgence, selfishness, and an erosion of moral
restraints.
3. Humanistic psychology fails to appreciate the
reality of our human capacity for evil. It lacks
adequate balance between realistic optimism and
despair.
Criticisms
41
The Trait Perspective
An individual’s unique constellation of durable
dispositions and consistent ways of behaving
(traits) constitutes his or her personality.
Examples of Traits
Honest
Dependable
Moody
Impulsive
42
Exploring Traits
One way to condense the immense list of
personality traits is through factor analysis, a
statistical approach used to describe and relate
personality traits.
Each personality is uniquely made up of
multiple traits.
Allport & Odbert (1936), identified almost
18,000 words representing traits.
43
Factor Analysis
Hans and Sybil Eysenck suggested that
personality could be reduced down to two polar
dimensions, extraversion-introversion and
emotional stability-instability.
44
Biology and Personality
Personality dimensions are influenced by genes.
1. Brain-imaging procedures show that extraverts
seek stimulation because their normal brain
arousal is relatively low.
2. Genes also influence our temperament and
behavioral style. Differences in children’s shyness
and inhibition may be attributed to autonomic
nervous system reactivity.
45
Assessing Traits
Personality inventories are questionnaires
(often with true-false or agree-disagree items)
designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and
behaviors assessing several traits at once.
46
MMPI
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely
researched and clinically used of all personality
tests. It was originally developed to identify
emotional disorders.
The MMPI was developed by empirically testing
a pool of items and then selecting those that
discriminated between diagnostic groups.
47
MMPI Test Profile
48
The Big Five Factors
Today’s trait researchers believe that earlier trait
dimensions, such as Eysencks’ personality dimensions,
fail to tell the whole story. So, an expanded range (five
factors) of traits does a better job of assessment.
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Openness
Extraversion
49
Endpoints
50
Questions about the Big Five
These traits are common across
cultures.3. How about other cultures?
Fifty percent or so for each
trait.
2. How heritable are they?
Quite stable in adulthood.
However, they change over
development.
1. How stable are these traits?
51
Evaluating the Trait Perspective
The Person-Situation Controversy
Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that
traits may be enduring, but the resulting
behavior in various situations is different.
Therefore, traits are not good predictors of
behavior.
52
The Person-Situation Controversy
Trait theorists argue that behaviors from a
situation may be different, but average behavior
remains the same. Therefore, traits matter.
53
The Person-Situation Controversy
Traits are socially significant and influence our
health, thinking, and performance
(Gosling et al., 2000).
Samuel Gosling
JohnLangfordPhotography
54
Consistency of Expressive Style
Expressive styles in speaking and gestures
demonstrate trait consistency.
Observers are able to judge people’s behavior
and feelings in as little as 30 seconds and in one
particular case as little as 2 seconds.
55
Social-Cognitive Perspective
Bandura (1986, 2001,
2005) believes that
personality is the
result of an interaction
that takes place
between a person and
their social context.
Albert Bandura
56
Individuals & Environments
How we view and treat people
influences how they treat us.
Our personalities shape
situations.
Anxious people react to
situations differently than
relaxed people.
Our personalities shape how
we react to events.
The school you attend and the
music you listen to are partly
based on your dispositions.
Different people choose
different environments.
Specific ways in which individuals and
environments interact
57
Behavior
Behavior emerges from an interplay of external
and internal influences.
58
Personal Control
External locus of control refers to the perception
that chance or outside forces beyond our
personal control determine our fate.
Internal locus of control refers to the perception
that we can control our own fate.
Social-cognitive psychologists emphasize our sense
of personal control, whether we control the
environment or the environment controls us.
59
Learned Helplessness
When unable to avoid repeated adverse events
an animal or human learns helplessness.
60
Optimism vs. Pessimism
An optimistic or pessimistic attributional style is
your way of explaining positive or negative
events.
Positive psychology aims to discover and
promote conditions that enable individuals and
communities to thrive.
61
Positive Psychology and Humanistic
Psychology
Positive psychology, such as humanistic
psychology, attempts to foster human
fulfillment. Positive psychology, in addition,
seeks positive subjective well-being, positive
character, and positive social groups.
Martin Seligman
CourtesyofMartinE.P.Seligman,PhDDirector,
PositivePsychologyCenter/UniversityofPennsylvania
62
Assessing Behavior in Situations
Social-cognitive psychologists observe people in
realistic and simulated situations because they
find that it is the best way to predict the behavior
of others in similar situations.
63
Evaluating the Social-Cognitive
Perspective
Critics say that social-cognitive psychologists
pay a lot of attention to the situation and pay
less attention to the individual, his unconscious
mind, his emotions, and his genetics.
The social-cognitive perspective on personality
sensitizes researchers to the effects of situations on
and by individuals. It builds on learning and
cognition research.
64
Exploring the Self
Research on the self has a long history because the
self organizes thinking, feelings, and actions and is a
critical part of our personality.
1. Research focuses on the different selves we
possess. Some we dream and others we dread.
2. Research studies how we overestimate our
concern that others evaluate our appearance,
performance, and blunders (spotlight effect).
65
Benefits of Self-Esteem
Maslow and Rogers argued that a successful
life results from a healthy self-image (self-
esteem). The following are two reasons why
low self-esteem results in personal problems.
1. When self-esteem is deflated, we view
ourselves and others critically.
2. Low self-esteem reflects reality, our failure in
meeting challenges, or surmounting
difficulties.
66
Culture & Self-Esteem
People maintain their self-esteem even with a low status
by valuing things they achieve and comparing
themselves to people with similar positions.
67
Self-Serving Bias
We accept responsibility for good deeds and
successes more than for bad deeds and
failures. Defensive self-esteem is fragile and
egotistic whereas secure self-esteem is less
fragile and less dependent on external
evaluation.

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ch 15 personality

  • 1. 1 PSYCHOLOGY (9th Edition) David Myers PowerPoint Slides Aneeq Ahmad Henderson State University Worth Publishers, © 2010
  • 3. 3 Personality The Psychoanalytic Perspective  Exploring the Unconscious  The Neo-Freudian and Psychodynamic Theories  Assessing Unconscious Processes  Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective
  • 4. 4 The Humanistic Perspective  Abraham Maslow’s Self-Actualizing Person  Carl Roger’s Person-Centered Perspective  Assessing the Self  Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective
  • 5. 5 The Trait Perspective  Exploring Traits  Assessing Traits  The Big Five Factors  Evaluating the Trait Perspective
  • 6. 6 The Social-Cognitive Perspective  Reciprocal Influences  Personal Control  Assessing Behavior in Situations  Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Perspective Exploring the Self  The Benefits of Self-Esteem  Self-Serving Bias
  • 7. 7 Personality An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. Each dwarf has a distinct personality.
  • 8. 8 Psychoanalytic Perspective In his clinical practice, Freud encountered patients suffering from nervous disorders. Their complaints could not be explained in terms of purely physical causes. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) CulverPictures
  • 9. 9 Psychodynamic Perspective Freud’s clinical experience led him to develop the first comprehensive theory of personality, which included the unconscious mind, psychosexual stages, and defense mechanisms. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) CulverPictures
  • 10. 10 Exploring the Unconscious A reservoir (unconscious mind) of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. Freud asked patients to say whatever came to their minds (free association) in order to tap the unconscious. http://www.english.upenn.edu
  • 11. 11 Dream Analysis Another method to analyze the unconscious mind is through interpreting manifest and latent contents of dreams. The Nightmare, Henry Fuseli (1791)
  • 12. 12 Psychoanalysis The process of free association (chain of thoughts) leads to painful, embarrassing unconscious memories. Once these memories are retrieved and released (treatment: psychoanalysis) the patient feels better.
  • 13. 13 Model of Mind The mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden, and below the surface lies the unconscious mind. The preconscious stores temporary memories.
  • 14. 14 Personality Structure Personality develops as a result of our efforts to resolve conflicts between our biological impulses (id) and social restraints (superego).
  • 15. 15 Id, Ego and Superego The Id unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification. The ego functions as the “executive” and mediates the demands of the id and superego. The superego provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.
  • 16. 16 Personality Development Freud believed that personality formed during the first few years of life divided into psychosexual stages. During these stages the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on pleasure sensitive body areas called erogenous zones.
  • 17. 17 Psychosexual Stages Freud divided the development of personality into five psychosexual stages.
  • 18. 18 Oedipus Complex A boy’s sexual desire for his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father. A girl’s desire for her father is called the Electra complex.
  • 19. 19 Identification Children cope with threatening feelings by repressing them and by identifying with the rival parent. Through this process of identification, their superego gains strength that incorporates their parents’ values. FromtheK.Vanderveldeprivatecollection
  • 20. 20 Defense Mechanisms The ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. 1. Repression banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. 2. Regression leads an individual faced with anxiety to retreat to a more infantile psychosexual stage.
  • 21. 21 Defense Mechanisms 3. Reaction Formation causes the ego to unconsciously switch unacceptable impulses into their opposites. People may express feelings of purity when they may be suffering anxiety from unconscious feelings about sex. 4. Projection leads people to disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.
  • 22. 22 Defense Mechanisms 5. Rationalization offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions. 6. Displacement shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, redirecting anger toward a safer outlet.
  • 23. 23 The Neo-Freudians Like Freud, Adler believed in childhood tensions. However, these tensions were social in nature and not sexual. A child struggles with an inferiority complex during growth and strives for superiority and power. Alfred Adler (1870-1937) NationalLibraryofMedicine
  • 24. 24 The Neo-Freudians Like Adler, Horney believed in the social aspects of childhood growth and development. She countered Freud’s assumption that women have weak superegos and suffer from “penis envy.” Karen Horney (1885-1952) TheBettmannArchive/Corbis
  • 25. 25 The Neo-Freudians Jung believed in the collective unconscious, which contained a common reservoir of images derived from our species’ past. This is why many cultures share certain myths and images such as the mother being a symbol of nurturance. Carl Jung (1875-1961) ArchiveoftheHistoryofAmericanPsychology/UniversityofAkron
  • 26. 26 Assessing Unconscious Processes Evaluating personality from an unconscious mind’s perspective would require a psychological instrument (projective tests) that would reveal the hidden unconscious mind.
  • 27. 27 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes. LewMerrim/PhotoResearcher,Inc.
  • 28. 28 Rorschach Inkblot Test The most widely used projective test uses a set of 10 inkblots and was designed by Hermann Rorschach. It seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. LewMerrim/PhotoResearcher,Inc.
  • 29. 29 Projective Tests: Criticisms Critics argue that projective tests lack both reliability (consistency of results) and validity (predicting what it is supposed to). 1. When evaluating the same patient, even trained raters come up with different interpretations (reliability). 2. Projective tests may misdiagnose a normal individual as pathological (validity).
  • 30. 30 Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective 1. Personality develops throughout life and is not fixed in childhood. 2. Freud underemphasized peer influence on the individual, which may be as powerful as parental influence. 3. Gender identity may develop before 5-6 years of age. Modern Research
  • 31. 31 Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective 4. There may be other reasons for dreams besides wish fulfillment. 5. Verbal slips can be explained on the basis of cognitive processing of verbal choices. 6. Suppressed sexuality leads to psychological disorders. Sexual inhibition has decreased, but psychological disorders have not. Modern Research
  • 32. 32 Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective Freud's psychoanalytic theory rests on the repression of painful experiences into the unconscious mind. The majority of children, death camp survivors, and battle-scarred veterans are unable to repress painful experiences into their unconscious mind.
  • 33. 33 The Modern Unconscious Mind Modern research shows the existence of non- conscious information processing. This involves: 1. schemas that automatically control perceptions and interpretations 2. the right-hemisphere activity that enables the split-brain patient’s left hand to carry out an instruction the patient cannot verbalize 3. parallel processing during vision and thinking 4. implicit memories 5. emotions that activate instantly without consciousness 6. self-concept and stereotypes that unconsciously influence us
  • 34. 34 Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective The scientific merits of Freud’s theory have been criticized. Psychoanalysis is meagerly testable. Most of its concepts arise out of clinical practice, which are the after-the-fact explanation.
  • 35. 35 Humanistic Perspective By the 1960s, psychologists became discontent with Freud’s negativity and the mechanistic psychology of the behaviorists. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) Carl Rogers (1902-1987) http://www.ship.edu
  • 36. 36 Self-Actualizing Person Maslow proposed that we as individuals are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. Beginning with physiological needs, we try to reach the state of self-actualization—fulfilling our potential. http://www.ship.edu TedPolumbaum/TimePix/GettyImages
  • 37. 37 Person-Centered Perspective Carl Rogers also believed in an individual's self- actualization tendencies. He said that Unconditional Positive Regard is an attitude of acceptance of others despite their failings. MichaelRougier/LifeMagazine©TimeWarner,Inc.
  • 38. 38 Assessing the Self All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an answer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to Self-Concept. In an effort to assess personality, Rogers asked people to describe themselves as they would like to be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If the two descriptions were close the individual had a positive self-concept.
  • 39. 39 Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective Humanistic psychology has a pervasive impact on counseling, education, child- rearing, and management with its emphasis on a positive self-concept, empathy, and the thought that people are basically good and can improve.
  • 40. 40 Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective 1. Concepts in humanistic psychology are vague and subjective and lack scientific basis. 2. The individualism encouraged can lead to self- indulgence, selfishness, and an erosion of moral restraints. 3. Humanistic psychology fails to appreciate the reality of our human capacity for evil. It lacks adequate balance between realistic optimism and despair. Criticisms
  • 41. 41 The Trait Perspective An individual’s unique constellation of durable dispositions and consistent ways of behaving (traits) constitutes his or her personality. Examples of Traits Honest Dependable Moody Impulsive
  • 42. 42 Exploring Traits One way to condense the immense list of personality traits is through factor analysis, a statistical approach used to describe and relate personality traits. Each personality is uniquely made up of multiple traits. Allport & Odbert (1936), identified almost 18,000 words representing traits.
  • 43. 43 Factor Analysis Hans and Sybil Eysenck suggested that personality could be reduced down to two polar dimensions, extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability.
  • 44. 44 Biology and Personality Personality dimensions are influenced by genes. 1. Brain-imaging procedures show that extraverts seek stimulation because their normal brain arousal is relatively low. 2. Genes also influence our temperament and behavioral style. Differences in children’s shyness and inhibition may be attributed to autonomic nervous system reactivity.
  • 45. 45 Assessing Traits Personality inventories are questionnaires (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors assessing several traits at once.
  • 46. 46 MMPI The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. It was originally developed to identify emotional disorders. The MMPI was developed by empirically testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminated between diagnostic groups.
  • 48. 48 The Big Five Factors Today’s trait researchers believe that earlier trait dimensions, such as Eysencks’ personality dimensions, fail to tell the whole story. So, an expanded range (five factors) of traits does a better job of assessment. Conscientiousness Agreeableness Neuroticism Openness Extraversion
  • 50. 50 Questions about the Big Five These traits are common across cultures.3. How about other cultures? Fifty percent or so for each trait. 2. How heritable are they? Quite stable in adulthood. However, they change over development. 1. How stable are these traits?
  • 51. 51 Evaluating the Trait Perspective The Person-Situation Controversy Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traits may be enduring, but the resulting behavior in various situations is different. Therefore, traits are not good predictors of behavior.
  • 52. 52 The Person-Situation Controversy Trait theorists argue that behaviors from a situation may be different, but average behavior remains the same. Therefore, traits matter.
  • 53. 53 The Person-Situation Controversy Traits are socially significant and influence our health, thinking, and performance (Gosling et al., 2000). Samuel Gosling JohnLangfordPhotography
  • 54. 54 Consistency of Expressive Style Expressive styles in speaking and gestures demonstrate trait consistency. Observers are able to judge people’s behavior and feelings in as little as 30 seconds and in one particular case as little as 2 seconds.
  • 55. 55 Social-Cognitive Perspective Bandura (1986, 2001, 2005) believes that personality is the result of an interaction that takes place between a person and their social context. Albert Bandura
  • 56. 56 Individuals & Environments How we view and treat people influences how they treat us. Our personalities shape situations. Anxious people react to situations differently than relaxed people. Our personalities shape how we react to events. The school you attend and the music you listen to are partly based on your dispositions. Different people choose different environments. Specific ways in which individuals and environments interact
  • 57. 57 Behavior Behavior emerges from an interplay of external and internal influences.
  • 58. 58 Personal Control External locus of control refers to the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate. Internal locus of control refers to the perception that we can control our own fate. Social-cognitive psychologists emphasize our sense of personal control, whether we control the environment or the environment controls us.
  • 59. 59 Learned Helplessness When unable to avoid repeated adverse events an animal or human learns helplessness.
  • 60. 60 Optimism vs. Pessimism An optimistic or pessimistic attributional style is your way of explaining positive or negative events. Positive psychology aims to discover and promote conditions that enable individuals and communities to thrive.
  • 61. 61 Positive Psychology and Humanistic Psychology Positive psychology, such as humanistic psychology, attempts to foster human fulfillment. Positive psychology, in addition, seeks positive subjective well-being, positive character, and positive social groups. Martin Seligman CourtesyofMartinE.P.Seligman,PhDDirector, PositivePsychologyCenter/UniversityofPennsylvania
  • 62. 62 Assessing Behavior in Situations Social-cognitive psychologists observe people in realistic and simulated situations because they find that it is the best way to predict the behavior of others in similar situations.
  • 63. 63 Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Perspective Critics say that social-cognitive psychologists pay a lot of attention to the situation and pay less attention to the individual, his unconscious mind, his emotions, and his genetics. The social-cognitive perspective on personality sensitizes researchers to the effects of situations on and by individuals. It builds on learning and cognition research.
  • 64. 64 Exploring the Self Research on the self has a long history because the self organizes thinking, feelings, and actions and is a critical part of our personality. 1. Research focuses on the different selves we possess. Some we dream and others we dread. 2. Research studies how we overestimate our concern that others evaluate our appearance, performance, and blunders (spotlight effect).
  • 65. 65 Benefits of Self-Esteem Maslow and Rogers argued that a successful life results from a healthy self-image (self- esteem). The following are two reasons why low self-esteem results in personal problems. 1. When self-esteem is deflated, we view ourselves and others critically. 2. Low self-esteem reflects reality, our failure in meeting challenges, or surmounting difficulties.
  • 66. 66 Culture & Self-Esteem People maintain their self-esteem even with a low status by valuing things they achieve and comparing themselves to people with similar positions.
  • 67. 67 Self-Serving Bias We accept responsibility for good deeds and successes more than for bad deeds and failures. Defensive self-esteem is fragile and egotistic whereas secure self-esteem is less fragile and less dependent on external evaluation.

Notas del editor

  1. Preview Question 1: What was Freud’s view of personality and its development?
  2. Preview Question 2: How did Freud think people defended themselves against anxiety?
  3. Preview Question 3: Which of Freud’s ideas did his followers accept or reject?
  4. Preview Question 4: What are projective tests, and how are they used?
  5. Preview Question 5: How do contemporary psychologists view Freud and the unconscious?
  6. Preview Question 6: How did humanistic psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying personality?
  7. Preview Question 7: How did humanistic psychologists assess a person’s sense of self?
  8. Preview Question 8: How has the humanistic perspective influenced psychology? What criticisms has it faced?
  9. Preview Question 9: How do psychologists use traits to describe personality?
  10. Preview Question 10: What are personality inventories, and what are their strengths and weaknesses as trait-assessment tools?
  11. Preview Question 11: Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation?
  12. Preview Question 12: Does research support the consistency of personality traits over time and across situations?
  13. Preview Question 13: In the view of social-cognitive psychologists, what mutual influences shape an individual’s personality?
  14. Preview Question 14: What are the causes and consequences of personal control?
  15. Preview Question 15: What underlying principle guides social-cognitive psychologists in their assessment of people’s behavior and beliefs?
  16. Preview Question 16: What has the social-cognitive perspective contributed to the study of personality, and what criticisms has it faced?
  17. Preview Question 17: Are we helped or hindered by high self-esteem?