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A knowledge-based strategy for structural recognition of transcription factor binding sites Beisi Xu Laboratory of Molecular Modeling and Design Dalian Institute of Chemical Physical xubeisi [at] gmail.com
Central Dogma http://stemcells.nih.gov
Central Dogma
Eukaryotic Model
Transcription wiki
Before Transcription
Yeast TFBS Database ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
TFBS ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],jaspar ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
TFBS Prediction Methods ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Reference State
Volume-Correction & Dirichlet pseudocounts for low-counts
Optimization I
Optimization II
Optimization III
Optimization III
Correction Combination Result
Transcription Factor Binding Sites(TFBS )
Prediction Process
Threading Energy
Match Experiment Result
DNA strucuture rotation and translation
Compare of training set
Prediction Accuracy
Comparing to Other Methods
ROC curves for MCM1
Energy Grid Map
Lower Energy Grid Map
Forbidden Block of Protein
Native Structure
 
A-DNA,B-DNA,Z-DNA
 

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A knowledge-based strategy for structural recognition of transcription factor binding sites

Editor's Notes

  1. a. 转录因子结合位点相关的数据库 TRANSFAC 是一个商业的数据库,包含转录因子,转录调控关系以及转录因子结合位点等相关信息,涵盖的物种有酵母,拟南芥,线虫,果蝇,大鼠,小鼠,人等。它通过文献挖掘来收集数据,并有严格的质量控制。 TRANSFAC 中收录的 TFBS 都是经过实验验证的,并且在每一个结合位点的条目中都标注了相应的实验技术,实验条件并对该 TFBS 的可信度进行了评价。 JASPAR[6] 收录了多细胞真核生物转录因子结合位点的信息,并以矩阵的形式保存,这些矩阵是由实验验证的结合位点统计得来的。与商业数据库 TRANSFAC 不同, JASPAR 是完全开放的资源, JASPAR 与 TRANSFAC 的另一个主要区别是, JASPAR 中含有的 TFBS 信息是非冗余的,即一个转录因子对应至多一个 TFBS 条目。 SELEX_DB[7] 和 HTPSELEX[8] 中收集了经 SELEX 实验验证的 TFBS 信息。它们不同于综合型的数据库,除了实验验证的结合位点信息,还尽可能详尽的提供了实验中间产物。此类数据库包含的 TFBS 相对较少,但针对每一个 TFBS 提供了更为丰富的实验信息,这为致力于建立更精准 TFBS 模型的研究者提供了宝贵的数据。 另外,还有一些收集特定物种转录因子以及 TFBS 信息的数据库: SCPD[11] 是收集酵母启动子区域序列的数据库,里面包含转录起始位点以及转录因子结合位点的注释; MYBS 同时搜集了 11 个数据库的酵母的实验结果和预测结果; PlantTFDB[9] 中包含 22 种植物的转录因子的信息; AGRIS[10] 中包含了模式生物拟南芥的转录因子及其结合位点的信息; TRED[12] 是收集哺乳动物转录调控元件的数据库,对人、小鼠、大鼠等物种的启动子区域有相对完整的注释; ITFP[13] 中收集了哺乳动物的转录因子与靶基因之间的调控关系信息。
  2. 相对各个物种的整个基因组来说,人们通过实验验证的 TFBS 依然十分的少。受实验成本和精度的限制,计算方法的介入十分必要。然而, TFBS 很短,长度通常在 5~20 bp 范围内,一个转录因子往往同时调控若干个基因,而它在不同基因上的结合位点虽具有一定的保守性,但又不完全相同,使得预测 TFBS 并不像序列比对那么简单。最基本的 TFBS 是从结合位点中每个位置选一个最可能出现的核苷酸组成一个一致性序列,比如某个转录因子有结合位点 AAAA, ACCA, ACTG, CAAC, CAGT 。则他们的一致性序列依然为 AAAA 。可见这种方式牺牲了很多信息,近年只有在分析一些强保守 TFBS 的位点的时候才会被使用。另一种比较流行的模型是位置权重矩阵模型 (Position Weight Matrix,PWM) ,它对每一个转录因子是一个列数与 TFBS 长度相等的 4 行矩阵。每列对应着 TFBS 中的一个位置,不同的行表示不同的核苷酸在此位置出现的几率。这个模型的局限一是假定相邻位置的核苷酸相互独立,一是固定了 TFBS 的长度而不考虑 DNA 的柔软性。 PWM 模型不尽完美但是仍然是一个很好的近似。 JASPAR 就是以 PWM 的形式保存 TFBS 的信息的。
  3. b. 预测转录因子结合位点的算法 近十多年来 , TFBS 问题一直是生物信息学中的活跃问题,除了在描述模型上改进之外,预测 TFBS 的算法大致可分为三类:第一类是 de novo 的预测算法,即没有转录因子以及它的结合位点的先验信息,完全依靠计算方法从共调控的基因集合的上游区域中搜索 motif ;第二类是结合 ChIP-chip 等高通量实验数据的预测算法;第三类系统发育足迹分析法 (Phylogenetic Footprinting) ,它通过比较不同物种的 DNA 序列来搜索在多个物种之间保守的 motif 。 de novo 预测算法的基本逻辑是,以一组共调控的基因作为输入,用计算方法搜索在这些基因的上游调控序列中富集的( enriched ) motif 。此类算法有很多,如基于 EM 算法的 MEME[23] ,基于贪婪算法的 Consensus[24] ,基于“词穷举法”( word enumeration )的 Seeder[25], 基于吉布斯抽样( Gibbs Sampler )的 AlignACE[26] , MotifSampler[27] , BioProspector[28] 等等。在多种软件并存的情况下,它们之间预测准确率的比较成为了研究者关心的问题。然而,由于对转录调控过程、转录因子与 DNA 结合过程缺乏透彻的了解,缺乏标准数据,缺乏合适的评价标准,这个问题并不容易回答。 2005 年, Tompa 等 [29] 对 13 种 de novo 预测软件进行了系统的评测。他们从 TRANSFAC 中提取 TFBS 信息构建正负样本集,应用这些软件做 TFBS 预测,并提出多种指标(从单个核苷酸, TFBS 整体两个不同的层次衡量预测算法的敏感度等)来评测算法的表现。他们的分析表明:各种软件之间没有绝对的优劣, 软件的绝对检测效果不是太高。 在 Tompa 的标准下 ( 如果预测出的 TFBS 与真 TFBS 有重叠,并且重叠的长度超过真 TFBS 长度的 1/4 ,就认为预测是准确的 ) , 13 个软件中最高的灵敏度( Sensitivity )为 0.22 。另外,不同软件的预测效果对不同的数据集、不同的物种有明显的偏好性,而且大部分软件在酵母数据上的效果明显高于其他物种,这与 TRANSFAC 中酵母数据的相对丰富是分不开的,如果允许软件同时预测出两个 motif ,预测得准确率有可能得到提高。最近 Wijaya 等 [30] 开发的 MotifVoter 通过综合不同预测算法的结果进行预测。在 Tompa 等构造的测试集上, MotifVoter 的敏感度比单个的预测算法提高了 275% 。 de novo 预测算法有局限性,它依赖于预先构建的共调控的基因集合。这个基因集合的构建通常来自于基因功能的分析,比如生物芯片的表达数据, ChIP-chip 实验等等。在很多情况下,这些功能信息是不易获得的,这也使得 de novo 检测算法局限于对单物种的分析。 系统发育足迹分析法 近些年来,随着测序技术的发展,越来越多的基因组被测序,系统发育足迹分析法在 TFBS 预测中变得越来越重要。它的基本假设是, TFBS 有调控功能,在进化中应该相对保守,进化速度要慢于其它没有功能的非编码序列,因此预测 TFBS 就是搜索同源基因在多个物种中对应基因间序列上保守的 motif 。 2003 年, Kellis 等 [37] 对包括酵母 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) 在内的 4 个酵母属的基因组进行序列比对分析,发现了 72 个 motif ,同年, Cliften[38] 选取了 5 个酵母属的基因组 ( 其中 3 个与酵母进化距离较近, 2 个与酵母进化距离相对较远 ) 进行测序及比较基因组学分析,发现了 7915 个保守 motif ,其中有约有 20%(1 535 个 ) 包含已知的 motif , 2007 年, 12 个果蝇属物种的全基因组测序完成, Kheradpour 等 [39] 对这些基因组进行比较分析,预测出 83 个转录因子对应的 motif ,将 Snail , Mef-2 , Twist 等转录因子的 ChIP-chip 数据集与之比照发现,预测的 motif 在 ChIP-chip 数据集中是显著富集的。 除了针对全基因组测序已完成的物种的大规模比较基因组学分析,研究者们还开发了很多算法,在同源 基因的上游序列中预测 TFBS ,此类算法中有些算法是在 de novo 预测算法的基础上开发的,它们将“共调控”和“进化上保守”两种信息综合起来,用于 TFBS 的预测。比如: CompareProspector[40] 是 BioProspector 的改进,它将 motif 搜索的过程偏向于进化上保守的序列, PhyloCon[41] 是 Consensus 的改进,它不仅考虑了单一物种中共调控的基因集合,还考虑了这些基因的同源基因, PhyME[42] 类似于 MEME ,但它考虑了多物种中的同源基因,并加入了这些物种间的进化树结构信息。另外,绝大多数系统发育足迹分析法依赖于 DNA 序列比对,因此,序列比对算法的选择也影响了 TFBS 预测的结果。对基因组区域进行合理的比对需要充分考虑该区域的特点, ReAlignerV[43] 是一种新的比对算法,它尤其适用于在有多个转座元插入的情况,因此提高序列比对准确率也有助于 TFBS 预测准确率的提高。 对于进化上距离较近的物种,基因组间序列相似程度很高。在非编码区,有很多不具有调控功能的序列也很保守,这给 TFBS 预测引入了噪音。为了提高 TFBS 预测的准确率,研究者将刻画物种间进化关系的进化树以及进化距离等信息都添加到预测算法中,为 TFBS 和背景序列建立不同的进化模型,如 PhyloGibbs[44] , FootPrinter[45] , PhyME[42] , Tree Gibbs Sampler[46 , 47] , Gibbs Motif Sampler[48] 。不同软件之间的区别在于,它们选用的进化模型不同,搜索 motif 空间的算法 ( 如 EM 算法,吉布斯抽样法等等 ) 是不同的。