As emergency management agencies and organizations implement social media and web technology to support crisis information and communication efforts, many question if present strategies are beneficial. This is especially true if social media is being implemented for the first time or has not been experienced in a live disaster. Studies have been conducted providing information on a variety of interactions between Social Media and Emergency Management (SMEM). However, few have taken a formal scientific approach as a means of measurement providing a 'Comprehensive Performance Metric.' Performance metrics need to have consistency while providing room for implementing unique measurement criteria for individualized efforts. We offer a research design using field studies of real world cases, evaluating rural and metropolitan areas. The result produces a set of 'Best Practices' through implementation. By offering a means of measuring success, SMEM can continue to evolve by using a methodologically sound approach using social media.

1. Social Media Implementation into Emergency Operations
A Holistic Approach to Evaluating
Social Media's Successful Implementation into
Emergency Management Operations:
Applied Research in an Action Research Study
Robby Westbrook Tammy Karlgaard Connie White Knapic, Josalyn"
rwestbrook@cherokeega.com t.karlgaard@gmail.com connie.m.white@gmail.com jknapic@colum.edu
Director Homeland Security and Senior Emergency Information Technology Solutions Crisis Communication
Emergency Management, Management Consultant, For Emergency Management Research Project,
Cherokee, GA USA Science Applications (ITSFEM) Columbia College Chicago
International Corporation
(SAIC)
“Do not panic. Do not panic!
We are trained professionals!”
Antz
ABSTRACT
As emergency management agencies and organizations implement social media and web technology to support
crisis information and communication efforts, many question if present strategies are beneficial. This is especially
true if social media is being implemented for the first time or has not been experienced in a live disaster. Studies
have been conducted providing information on a variety of interactions between Social Media and Emergency
Management (SMEM). However, few have taken a formal scientific approach as a means of measurement providing
a 'Comprehensive Performance Metric.' Performance metrics need to have consistency while providing room for
implementing unique measurement criteria for individualized efforts. We offer a research design using field studies
of real world cases, evaluating rural and metropolitan areas. The result produces a set of 'Best Practices' through
implementation. By offering a means of measuring success, SMEM can continue to evolve by using a
methodologically sound approach using social media.
KEYWORDS
Social, media, emergency, management, measuring, cases, action, research, web, 2.0
I. INTRODUCTION
Emergency Management (EM) is defined as “the application of science, technology, planning, and management to
deal with extreme events” (Drabek, 1991). Disasters and/or catastrophes can impact entire communities for decades
and tend to either unify or devastate a community. The 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake, Hurricane Katrina in 2005,
Haiti Earthquake of 2010, Iceland volcano 2010 (Eyjafjallajökull) and The Great Japan Eastern Earthquake of 2011
are all recent examples of communities that were impacted by a catastrophic event. To this day, residents in
numerous areas as such, continue to deal with the aftermath. It is for this purpose that each person within the
community is considered an EM stakeholder. This helps us to understand that EM is not simply an agency,
department or division, but rather, a field that involves the entire community.
Due to the breadth and depth of stakeholders for each emergency manager, decision-making becomes a complex
task. Each decision or non-decision has the potential to impact the entire community. (Lindell, Prater, Perry, 2007;
White and Turoff, 2010). The key to making good decisions as a disaster unfolds is the ability to have a holistic
view of the response efforts across the community. If an assessment of the situation occurs during the response
phase, it is usually focused on intelligence or understanding the behavior of the hazard that is impacting the
community and the people/property at risk (Lindell et al., 2007). An emergency manager constantly struggles with
real time incident assessment, particularly if the event is extensive and requires a multi-disciplinary response. The
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2. Social Media Implementation into Emergency Operations
goal of a real time situational information assessment is to create a Common Operational Picture (COP) across the
entire area of impact. A COP is defined as “a single identical display of relevant information shared by more than
one command to facilitate collaborative planning and to achieve situational awareness” (Misbah, 2009).
Social media was never intended to be used for emergency management (White, Plotnick, Kushma, Turoff and
Hiltz, 2009; Fugate, 2011). However, numerous studies support the notion that social media is an invaluable part of
emergency response communication and information sharing efforts (Palen, Hiltz and Liu, 2007; White et al., 2009;
Starbird and Stamberger, 2010; Red Cross, 2010; Crowley and Chan, 2011; Fairfax County Web Metrics Report,
2011; Red Cross, 2011; White, 2011). These studies also confirm that the citizens use social media and have an
expectation that EM officials monitor their respective social media sites for emergency information (Red Cross,
2010; 2011). However, at present, most emergency management agencies and officials do not have a formal social
media strategy in place to accommodate the needs of its population. Social Media has the characteristics of
flexibility, scalability, interoperability, and provides a common operating picture, which creates a robust system for
providing information to citizens. This type of two-way information and communication system also allows citizens
to be utilized as a resource during all phases of emergency management thus meeting the demands of government
directives using the community. This demonstrates the potential usefulness of SMEM in linking together both
official and non-official crisis response channels.
The community, volunteer organizations, and news organizations are currently embracing social media, but EM is
slow to adopt and implement it on a full scale. One can understand this hesitation, given the lack of guidance and
quality assurance. As EM officials and agencies begin to implement social media, several questions need to be
answered such as:
 How do you know a social media strategy is working?
 What is considered social media success?
 Does it work better than past methods of communication and information sharing?
We believe by conducting formal research on the implementation of a holistic SMEM framework that these and
many other questions can be answered. We also contend that the research should be carried out as field studies
(Applied Research) and conducted under the direction of Action Research. This methodology implements social
media on a large scale by using real world cases that represent diverse sizes of communities. Using diverse
community sizes produces more realistic results. Under the guidelines of Action Research, we propose that
qualitative and quantitative research (triangulation) be conducted in an orderly and discrete manner where actual
data from interactions will produce information that can be used in the real world.
Robust research on social media practices, systems/platforms, and user interaction is critical due to the evolving
nature of social media. Few formal research designs have been created, implemented, analyzed and fully integrated
into an ongoing real-time population. This research will create a series of metrics and best practices for EMs when
implementing social media in crisis communication and disaster situations. In a disaster situation, decision makers
base decisions on incoming information from trusted sources. The first step in decision-making is to understand if
you have an accurate picture of the disaster situation. We describe a research agenda that will create metrics for
leveraging social media during a disaster situation as well as provide the best practices for both emergency managers
and the end user (the public) during day-to-day operations.
The remainder of this paper includes a broad review of existing studies. Specific features from each study are
identified. Next, Action Research is argued as the suitable methodology to support the overarching applied field
studies. In order to better understand the dynamics between environments, two case studies are presented that
provide information on considerations that should be taken into account given the demographics and characteristics
of a community and its stakeholders. An Action Research plan is described.
II. BACKGROUND
A robust literature review is the starting point for this research. Understanding the work that has already been
conducted on social media and emergency management is a key first step to correctly identifying current and future
research efforts. The results of the literature review drives the study design metrics and areas of concentration. Some
examples of the types of studies that will be utilized include:
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3. Social Media Implementation into Emergency Operations
1. An Action Research Study using Web Technology for Knowledge Management during Disasters (Raman et
al., 2010).
2. Survey Research by the Red Cross in 2010, 2011.
3. Web Metrics used by Fairfax County during the use of Hurricane Irene, 2011.
4. Action Research Crisis Informatics studies by EPIC in the Tweak the Tweet Project and Voluntweeters
(Starbird and Palen, 2011).
Study 1: Action Research Study: Wiki Technology for Knowledge Management During a Crisis Event
Web based collaborative efforts using Web 2.0 technologies have used Action Research. A Wiki based medium was
used in emergency response efforts during a campus-wide earthquake drill. Issues surrounding ‘knowledge
management’ for emergency response efforts were the main focus. Since the stakeholders desired permanent
change and intended on integrating the new concepts/design into day to day on goings, Action Research was the best
solution. (Raman et al., 2010).
"The objective of the study was to design, implement and evaluate a system that could change the overall
preparedness, communication, and knowledge management processes for emergency response within the CUC."
(Raman et al., 2010, p. 53)
Research should test if the web-based solutions could help the group overcome present challenges. The over-
arching approach was Action Research, using participatory research to build the system. A 5-step action research
process guides these efforts.
● Step 1: Problem Formulation
● Step 2: Action Planning
● Step 3: Intervention (data collection)
● Step 4: Evaluation
● Step 5: Specification of Learning Outcomes
This approach was necessary for the environment and the study. These needs mirror our own, thus making this a
good approach upon which to support research agenda.
Study 2: The American Red Cross Survey
The American Red Cross conducted a survey during the summer of 2011. Over 2000 people participated in the
survey, approximately half by phone and half online. The general population was asked questions that were
analyzed according to:
● Online community user population
● Social Media saturation
● Frequency of Social Media use
● Emergency Information Sources
● Desirability of Safety Information Communication Application
● Where the public disseminates crisis information
● Expectations of emergency organizations to respond to information posted online
● Time frames of expectations concerning official response efforts
● Alternative channels seeking help
● Disseminate personal safety indication information
● Local, State and Federal Level monitoring expectations of public
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4. Social Media Implementation into Emergency Operations
Study 3: Web Metrics Report by Fairfax County Virginia During Hurricane Irene
During the summer of 2011, a very large and potentially devastating hurricane crawled up the eastern coast of the
United States. One EM group used Social Media for crisis communications and provided an analysis of the results.
The EM group used a disaster information blog, a Facebook account, Twitter, Flickr and YouTube. They conducted
a comparison of the frequency of visits people made to the traditional web sites versus the social media sites.
● Blog - The number of views, public comments and county posts. This was also compared with the county
web pages that were viewed during the same time.
● Facebook - The number of Post views, number of new Fans, number of times Shared, number of Likes, the
number of Comments and the number of County Posts. The number of Fans and Comments were
compared with the past trends.
● Twitter - The number of Retweets, the number of New Follows and the number of County updates.
● Community Emergency Alert Systems - number of New Subscribers
● County Website - The number of clicks to hurricane information from the site, increase in the number of
Views selecting emergency web pages
● Flickr - The number of views.
● YouTube - The number of views.
● Online Discussion/Chat with EM Coordinator - The number of questions submitted by public. This was
compared with all other Online Discussion sessions.
● Mobile Apps - The number of times downloaded. This was compared with past trends.
The report states, “This metrics report provides a snapshot of how our information was published and shared during
the preparation, response and recovery time frame of Aug. 25-29, 2011. The stats paint a picture that confirms the
changing way government communicators must think about, distribute and encourage sharing of information in
today’s world.”
Study 4: Voluntweeters and Tweak the Tweet (TtT)
In this study, the group used content analysis on information sent through Twitter by users. Twitter is a very
important part of crisis management as its proven use over the past years.
They analyzed Tweets for:
● Original Tweets
● ReTweets sent in a TtT syntax. This was analyzed given a design they constructed and implemented
● Translations of Tweets into a TtT format
● Non-TtT Tweets. These Tweets had a keyword in them although they weren’t officially TtT formats.
● They maintained frequency counts of all of the coding for TtT tweets.
Interviewing some of the people who tweeted during the event collected further data. They explored the motivations
of volunteers.
As demonstrated, a host of approaches exists. However, we feel a holistic approach at research may contribute
deeper insight into the complexities challenging EMs implementing social media to meet agency objectives. Real
world cases need to be used to guide studies on measuring social media implementation. By using field studies,
meaningful results can further guide research efforts and findings.
III. METHODOLOGY
The overall study will include qualitative and quantitative research methods and will be conducted in an orderly and
discrete manner. This research effort explores how using social media, in addition to traditional methods of response
efforts, will provide a greater awareness to those in need of information (i.e. the survivors) as well as to those
decision makers in an emergency operations center. Past studies with similar goals and objectives have supported
this methodology as being appropriate for the area of interest. Furthermore, our study will employ a five-step
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5. Social Media Implementation into Emergency Operations
approach to include problem formulation, action planning, data collection and evaluation. The details of each step
include:
Step 1: Problem Formulation
Information is typically received from the jurisdiction’s E-911 center, news media and from first responders during
the initial response efforts. But what happens if the disaster is so severe that first responders cannot get to the scene?
For example, during the catastrophic tornado outbreak of 27 April 2011 in Georgia, many emergency managers
found that the victims themselves became the first responders. One example occurred in Catoosa County, Georgia
where a violent tornado completely leveled the Cherokee Valley area killing 8 people and injuring several more
victims. Fifty-five survivors were interviewed and they noted that it took almost 3 hours for first responders to arrive
on the scene. The survivors performed basic search and rescue operations to look for other victims and provided first
aid until first responders could cut their way into the area.
What if these survivors had an established communication method to send real-time messages to emergency
managers and first responders? After the tornado, the survivors did send messages, but they went to relatives via
social media because there was not an established method of communication with emergency managers. This case
demonstrates the guiding effort of our approach.
Step 2: Action Planning
Most emergency managers wear multiple hats and emergency management is just one of them (Clarke, 2006). This
is problematic because it leaves the emergency manager less time to developing robust communication methods
within the community. This is especially true in rural and small communities when the emergency manager is often
a first responder as well. Can small emergency management programs assimilate all of the available information and
digest it when disaster strikes? Information is most likely coming into the Emergency Operations Center (EOC)
from multiple sources at the same time. Can all of this existing information be coupled with social media feeds to
allow for rapid situational awareness?
We present metrics upon which agencies can use as a guide to evaluate the success of a social media solution set.
These guidelines will outline the steps necessary for evaluation. However, we suggest different guidelines for rural
areas versus metropolitan areas, as each is unique and will require a different way in which social media sites are
leveraged within the community.
We plan to implement a new research design that:
● Illustrates the additional preparedness for emergency management that will occur by implementing a social
media strategy into their comprehensive preparedness, mitigation, response and recovery efforts.
● Determines if the use of social media decreases response times for first responders.
● Determines if the use of social media increases the accuracy of information flow between victim and
decision maker.
● Illustrates if the research participants feel more informed due to the use of social media methods/strategy.
● Analyzes the actual use of the social media sites vs. the intended use of the sites.
This effort could be further utilized to aid other efforts such as exploring the effects of new media and response in
Vulnerable Populations including the elderly, handicapped and those with functional needs. It could also be the
basis to study the new role of the digital volunteer, which is the effort of standardizing and authenticating
individuals to deploy online during emergencies.
The current research design includes using selective parts of the aforementioned studies methods of measurement
covered in the Background section of this paper. Each is unique and measures social media and emergency
management in some capacity. However, we intend to conduct a formal study providing further insight into the
Web 2.0 environment. We begin by utilizing an overall approach implemented by Raman, et al. in order to
implement a scientific approach.
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6. Social Media Implementation into Emergency Operations
Action Research (AR) is the closest of all social scientific approaches to enacting the scientific method. AR involves
problem formulation, operationalization, hypothesis formulation, data gathering, data analysis, action design, action,
evaluation of the action and redesign of the hypotheses, interpretations, and actions in an ongoing cycle (Raman et
al., 2010). Raman’s work followed the guidelines set forth in AR. His stakeholders were trained to first use the
system and then conduct a scenario to test the system and gather data for analysis. The team members provided
feedback and suggestions were implemented by the group to better support the needs identified during Step 1. This
same basic overall approach will be used in our own research efforts. However, there will be feedback loops at
every step to support new problem discovery.
Step 3: Intervention (Data Collection)
First in Step 3, we need to answer the question, “how do we determine who needs to know what?” We will then
combine and evaluate information from multiple sources to develop a clear process for gaining a clear and accurate
operational picture across all EM frameworks. One overreaching structure in place in the United States specific to
organizing disaster responsibilities in local emergency operations plans is defined within the National Response
Framework (NRF). The NRF utilizes Emergency Support Functions (ESFs). ESFs serve as the primary operational-
level mechanism to provide assistance in functional areas. Moreover, representation from each ESF agency puts key
decision makers together within the Emergency Operations Center. Table 1 provides an example of how Emergency
Support Functions are used to not only organize the local emergency management program, but to clearly identify
partner organizations, and key stakeholders.
Emergency Support Function Primary & Support Organizations
EFS-1: Transportation School District, Metro Transit, Rural Transit
Church Groups
ESF-2: Communications & Warning Emergency Management,E-911 Center,
Media, Amateur Radio
ESF-3: Public Works County Public Works Departments, City Public
Works Departments, Private Contractors
ESF-4: Firefighting City/County Fire Departments
ESF-5: Emergency Management EM Office, CERT, VOAD
ESF-6: Mass Care Red Cross, Public Health, Salvation Army, Faith-
Based Groups, Community Volunteer
Organizations
ESF-7: Resource Support EM Office
ESF-8: Public Health Local Public Health, District Public Health
ESF-9: Search & Rescue City/County Fire Departments
ESF-10: Hazardous Materials City/County Fire Departments
ESF-11: Agriculture/Food Safety Environmental Health, Ag Industry, Extension
Service, Animal Control
ESF-12: Energy Utility Companies, Fuel Providers
ESF-13: Law Enforcement Safety & Security Sheriff’s Office, City County Police Departments
ESF-14: Long-Term Recovery EM Office, VOADs
ESF-15: External Affairs Joint Information Team
Table 1. Local Emergency Management Program Organization
Table 1 is not intended to determine tasks or information needs for each area of responsibility, but to simply
illustrate the wide range and number of organizations required for a successful emergency management program.
On the surface it is clear that many of the functional areas would need to know the same general information
concerning the threat and expected or actual impacts. What must be determined through additional research is what
subset of information is needed for each specific function to successfully meet the incident/disaster objectives.
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7. Social Media Implementation into Emergency Operations
The efforts of Raman et al. were based on Wiki technology; however we are exploring multiple platforms and will
need the flexibility to use new technologies and applications. We propose stakeholders collaboratively define a set
of objectives and means for measuring the success or failure of these objectives. In particular, weaknesses and
vulnerabilities in the different platforms should be identified and addressed. In addition, both stakeholders from the
emergency operations center and the community stakeholders will explore deficiencies by identifying possibilities
where social media may provide a solution. Appropriate measures will be identified and used so that results are
sound.
In many emergency operations centers, the emergency manager acts as the conduit between external information
being received and who needs the information within the overall organization. Some emergency operations centers
input all data into an existing disaster management software application such as E-Team or WebEOC where
everyone can view data.
Many emergency managers operate with a minimum amount of personnel to accomplish the emergency
management function. Figure 1 depicts the sources of information already being monitored by the emergency
operations center. If raw data obtained via Social Media is added to this information stream, would it become
overwhelming?
Figure 1. Information Sources for Emergency Operations Centers
In urban areas, the social media information management function could easily be blended into the overall
information management system within the emergency operations center. If the emergency operations center is
organized using ESFs following the principles of the National Incident Management System (NIMS), the
intelligence unit within the Emergency Operations Center Planning Section could filter social media information.
The development and implementation of a social media specialist within the intelligence unit would allow for the
rapid interpretation of information that can then be provided to the overall emergency operations center management
and specific ESFs.
In a more rural area, the emergency manager typically wears multiple hats. This could include the emergency
manager also being the fire chief, police chief or city/county manager. The function of managing social media will
be much lower on the priority list of a rural emergency manager even though the information may be very helpful.
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8. Social Media Implementation into Emergency Operations
With this being said, there are methods of introducing the use of social media to rural areas that can provide a
positive enhancement to the existing communication efforts.
Step 4: Evaluation
Every country in the world uses their own set of social media tools, platforms, and technologies. Although we may
use Twitter in the USA and the Japanese use Twittereach one is unique. This is because the second language
offered in Twitter was Japanese. However, the Japanese don't use Facebookthey use a similar site called Mixi
(mixi.com). Further, all countries have preferred social media sites that are unique to their 'local' language. For
example, Skyrock is used in France, Tuenti in Spain, wer-kennt-wen in Germany, Virgilio in Italy, bharatstudent in
India, QQ in China, FC2 in Japan and the list goes on and on. Therefore, each country also has their own set of
categories of social sites as is demonstrated in Figure 2, China has a host of similar yet unique SM sites.
Figure 2. China Social Media Sites Compared to the Global Players
Hence, the focus on the study should be on 'what is used' vs. any specific social media site. We plan to evaluate
Twitter for its microblogging functionality but other microblogging SM sites should be considered. This work
applies to functions - functions that satisfy the needs to fulfill some task. We can map those 'functions' and 'needs'
over to any other social media platform, further evaluating the platforms used by the 'locals' to see how these
techniques can be used in 'any' environment - not just the USA - FB, Twitter, YouTube world. Also, this allows the
research team to remain flexible in the approach in order to include the ever-changing 'social media' world. Social
media is a dynamic environment that changes daily, what is used today may not be used tomorrow and most social
media tools do not have a long life. For example, MySpace (myspace.com) used to be popular and at the time of
this writing, Tumblr https://www.tumblr.com/ is the fastest growing social network in the USA. This work can be
applied locally but from our local studies will be abstracted a set of 'something providing guidance' regardless of the
country. It will be based on what is used, and local to the population. The rationale for using a variety of platforms,
tools, and technologies is that every country in the world uses their own set of social media tools, platforms, and
technologies.
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9. Social Media Implementation into Emergency Operations
After the research team has had time to collect and analyze the data, an implementation strategy will be developed to
roll out the best practices and metrics for the community. Additional follow up work and research will be conducted
based upon the specific needs of the community.
Step 5: Specification of Learning Outcomes
The outcomes of a formalized research strategy may include:
1. Documented social media use and community engagement in diverse (rural and urban) environments
2. Trend analysis of social media tools, platforms, and technologies across the globe
3. Application of quantitative and qualitative research methods to a social media setting
4. Lessons learned on social media usage, strategy, and programs as they relate to EM
5. Documented social media analysis methods in EM
6. Metrics for analyzing social media in EM that can be utilized by the EM community as a standard
7. Assisting local EM in implementing a social media strategy within their community
Additional outcomes may be produced during the research and will be documented for further research efforts. The
purpose of using formalized research is to provide the research community a level of standardization so that the
research results can be duplicated in other work. The outcomes in this study will provide future researchers with a
baseline from which to craft additional work in social media.
IV. DISCUSSION
Both sending and receiving accurate information is critical in established communication channels between the
emergency manager and the entire community of stakeholders. Since September 11, 2001 many programs have been
initiated across the United States to prepare citizens for "All-Hazards." Many of these programs have included the
use of social media by federal, state, and local emergency management programs. While social media has become a
very useful tool for communicating preparedness information, the use of this tool remains largely untested during
the response phase of disasters or large local emergencies.
A formal approach measuring the changes in an environment that a permanent effect is desired is best implemented
using an Action Research approach. “AR is a set of self-consciously collaborative and Democratic strategies for
generating knowledge and designing action in which trained experts in social and other forms of research and local
stakeholders work together. The research focus is chosen collaboratively amount the local stakeholders and the
action researchers and the relationships among the participants are organized as joint learning processes”
(Greenwood and Levin, 2007). The full potential of continually utilizing social media can only be realized with
ongoing formal studies and field studies evaluating over time series efforts. Social media is continuously changing.
Constant updates to the technologies along with user preferences force us to remain current in our usage and study
approach.
Social media must be tested in a real-time environment in order to evaluate its ability to assist emergency managers
in developing a common operating picture across the entire area of responsibility. Citizens do become the first
responders during disasters and it is important for emergency managers to know what they are seeing. At the same
time, emergency managers have many responsibilities and lots of information to sort through in order to understand
what is going on in their community. Including social media, research as to how all of the available communications
sources can be consolidated into a system that is manageable is needed.
V. CONCLUSION
The communications and information-sharing paradigm has shifted drastically since the days of Hurricane Katrina
in 2005. Emerging technologies have provided individuals with a means to share information. These new
technologies have also provided individual stakeholders within a community a voice that can be heard around the
world. Social media and web technology have taken the lead in shifting the traditional communication and
information-sharing paradigm, making the traditional barriers of official information distribution obsolete. This shift
includes a complete reversal of information sharing techniques from the official (government) to the public. Now,
the public can share information and disseminate critical news to the world and each other without going through
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10. Social Media Implementation into Emergency Operations
government communication methods. This is revolutionizing the way in which people ask for help and the way
responders and other EM officials receive information. The very structure of communication and information
sharing dynamics is changing for both for EMs and the public. As stated by FEMA Director Craig Fugate, one of the
social elements that is changing in the field of EM is viewing "the public as a resource and not a liability" (Fugate,
2011). This new paradigm has EMs and other officials pondering how to implement social media, when to
implement social media, and how to use it effectively before an event.
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