It provides with depth insights about overall theories of leadership in various similar grouping.

1. Selected Leadership Theories
Trait Theories
Behavioral Approaches
Contingency Approaches
Neocharismatic Approaches

2. Trait Theory
 The theories that sought personality, social, physical,
or intellectual traits that differentiated leaders from
nonleaders
 The traits are the inherent attributes of the leaders to
keep them distinct from others
 For example, Margaret Thatcher, as the prime minister
of UK, was recognized for her leadership in terms of
her confidence, iron-willed, determined, and decisive.

3.  A research study was conducted in the 1930s to
study the attributes that differentiate the leaders
from nonleaders.
 A review of 20 different studies identified nearly 80
leadership traits, though the study was not aimed to
identify the leadership traits
 Among the identified traits, only FOUR of them
were common to all cases, which included
personality, social, physical, and intellectual traits.
Trait Theory

4.  Earliest approach to study leadership
 Used to identify great persons from masses
 Based on the assumption of -
certain traits = success/effectiveness
 The logic of leadership traits is as basic as
height, as complex as intelligence
Trait Theory

5. How Leaders Differ from Nonleaders?
 According to Kirkpatrick & Locke (1991),
leaders can be distinguished from nonleaders
on the basis of SIX attributes or traits:
 Drive
 Desire to lead
 Honesty and integrity
 Self-confidence
 Intelligence
 Job-relevant knowledge

6. Important Traits of Effective Leaders
 Personality
 Persuasive
 Persistence
 Patience
 Probity
 Praise giving
 Positive orientation
 People Based
 Possible
 Practical
 Progressive
 Prepared
 Power-building
13 Ps

7. Personality Factors for Effective Leadership
Capacity Achievement Responsibility Participation Status
Intelligence Scholarship Honesty Activity Socioeconomic
position
Alertness Knowledge Dependability Sociability Popularity
Verbal facility Athletic
accomplishment
Initiative Cooperation
Originality Personality
adjustment
Persistence Adaptability
Judgment Aggressiveness Humor
Self-confidence
Desire to excel

8. Criticisms on Trait Theories of Leadership
The belief that personality traits determine the
rate of success of a leader could easily be
challenged because practically it is very hard to
distinguish leaders from non-leaders based on
personality traits
There exists a very thin relationship between
traits and leader’s success
Some traits are achieved by birth
Personality traits without motivation are
worthless for success
It does not look like a theory
“Traits Plus Motivation Equals Leadership”

9. Behavioral Approaches to Leadership
 Pattern of actions used by different individuals
determines leadership potential
 Examples
– Autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire
– Michigan Studies: Employee centered versus
task centered

10. Three Approaches to Behavioral Studies
1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles
2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions
3. Studies Based on Leadership Grid

11. 1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles
 Lewin, Lippitt, and White are probably the earliest
contributors of leadership study in a scientific manner.
 The authors specialized in leadership styles while
conducting a series of research studies in the 1930s at
the University of Iowa.
 The suggested leadership styles include:
 Autocratic
 Democratic
 Laissez-Faire

12.  When Quantity of work is important:
 When Quality of work is important:
 When Satisfaction with work is important:
Which is the Best Style?
Autocratic Democratic Laissez Faire
Most Least
Democratic Autocratic Laissez Faire
Best Worst
Democratic Laissez Faire Autocratic
Most Least

13. Tannenbaum and Schmidt
- Continuum of Leadership Behavior
Autocratic Democratic Laissez-faire
Use of Authority by the Manager
Area of Freedom for Subordinates
Boss- Centered
Leadership
Subordinate- Centered
Leadership

14. Optimal Leadership Style Depends Upon:
1. Forces in the Leader
2. Forces in the Subordinate Group
3. Forces in the Situation
Tannenbaum/Schmidt’s Leadership Continuum

15. 2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions
Key Contributions
a. Ohio State University Studies
b. Michigan State University Studies

16. Ohio State University Studies
Two Dimensions
 Initiating structure: The extent to which a leader
is likely to define and structure his/her role and
roles of subordinates in the search for goal
attainment
 Consideration: The extent to which a leader is
likely to have job relationships characterized by
mutual trust, respect for subordinates‘ ideas, and
regard of their feelings

17. Initiating Structure
– Is task oriented
– Directs subordinate work activities toward goal
attainment
– Typically give instructions, spend time planning,
and emphasize deadlines
– Provide explicit schedules of work activities
Consideration
– Is mindful of subordinates
– Establishes mutual trust
– Provides open communication
– Develops teamwork

18. Two Dimensions
 Employee Oriented: The leadership dimension in
which the leader emphasizes interpersonal relations;
relationship oriented
 Production Oriented: The leadership dimension in
which the leader emphasizes on technical or task
aspect of the job; result oriented
Michigan State University Studies
Similar to Ohio Studies

19. Studies Based on Leadership Grid
 Blake and Mouton (1964) represented with the
graphical portrayal of the two dimensional view of
leadership
 The authors proposed a managerial grid showing the
key managerial styles of ‗concern for people‘ and
‗concern for production‘
 The grid has been developed in a nine-by-nine matrix
outlining 81 different leadership styles

20. The Managerial Grid
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Concern for People
ConcernforTask
(1,9)
(9,1)
(9,9)
(5,5)
(1,1)

21. The Managerial Grid
High
High
Low
Low
Concern for Production
ConcernforPeople
1,9
Country Club Management
Thoughtful attention to the needs of people
for satisfying relationships leads to a com-
fortable, friendly organization atmosphere
and work tempo.
1,1 Impoverished Management
Exertion of minimum effort to get required
work done is appropriate to sustain
organization membership.
9,9
Team Management
Work accomplishment is from
committed people;
interdependence
through a “common stake” in
organization purpose leads to
relationships of trust and respect.
5,5
Middle-of-the-Road Management
Adequate organization performance is possible
through balancing the necessity to get out work
with maintaining morale of people at a
satisfactory level.
Authority-Compliance 9, 1
Efficiency in operations results from
arranging conditions of work in such a
way that human elements interfere to a
minimum degree.

22. Leadership Styles
Likert‘s System Four
System I—Exploitive Autocratic
System II—Benevolent Autocratic
System III—Consultative
System IV—Participative Group

23. Contingency Theories of Leadership
 Leader traits and/or leader behaviors are
important aspects but must be taken in
context.
That is, the situation matters.

24. Selected Studies on Contingency Approaches
 Fiedler‘s Contingency Theory
 Hersey and Blanchard‘s Situational (Life Cycle)
Theory
 House‘s Path-Goal Theory

25. LPC: LEAST PREFERRED COWORKER
 Low LPC Score: task-oriented leader
 High LPC Score: relationship-oriented leader
 According to Fiedler, a person is one or the
other - it is a fixed personality trait

26. FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY
THEORY OF LEADERSHIP
A person‘s LPC score correlates with:
 Task structure
 Leader/Member relations
 Leader position power
in terms of group effectiveness

27. Three Elements of Leadership Situations
 Leader-member relations: refers to group
atmosphere and members‘ attitude toward and
acceptance of the leader
 Task structure: refers to the extent to which tasks
performed by the group are defined, involve
specific procedures, and have clear, explicit goals
 Position power: is the extent to which the leader
has formal authority over subordinates

28. Task-Oriented (low LPC)
Leader is best when situation either favorable or
unfavorable
Employee-Oriented (high LPC)
Leader is best when situation is moderately
favorable

29. POSSIBLE USES OF FIEDLER’S THEORY
1. Train leaders in needed style
(Fiedler says no)
2. Match the leader with the job
(Fiedler says this is a good start)
3. Engineer the job to fit the manger
(Fiedler says this is the best approach)

30. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
A contingency approach to leadership that links
the leader‘s behavioral style with the task
readiness (maturity) of subordinates.
Also known as ‗life cycle‘ theory.

31. Situational Leadership
 No single best way to lead
 Focus on maturity or readiness of followers
– Ability and willingness
 Adjust emphasis on task and relationship
behaviors according to the readiness of
followers to perform their tasks

32. Hersey’s Situational Leadership Model
 Based on
– Style of leadership
 Giving direction (task behaviour)
 Giving motivational support (relationship
behaviour)
– ―Readiness‖ of followers to perform a task
 Ability
 Willingness

33. Situational Leadership
 Telling: low readiness, untrained and
inexperienced employees
 Selling: low/moderate readiness, trained but
inexperienced employees
 Participating: moderate/high readiness, able but
unwilling, employees skeptical
 Delegating: high readiness, employees ready and
willing to take responsibility

34. Hersey and
Blanchard’s
Situational
Leadership
Model Defines
Relationship
Between
Maturity and
Four
Leadership
Styles
High
relationship
Low task
High task
High
relationship
Low
relationship
Low task
High task
Low
relationship
M1
M2M3
M4
High
Low High
Task Behavior
RelationshipBehavior
Style of
Leader
ImmatureMaturity
Ability
Willingness
M1M2M3M4
High Moderate Low
This person is able
(has the necessary
knowledge and skill)
This person is willing
(has the necessary
confidence and
commitment)
Maturity of Followers
Psychological maturity
Job maturity
A great deal
4
Quite a bit
3
Some
2
Little
1
Usually
4
Often
3
On occasion
2
Seldom
1

35. HOUSE’S
PATH-GOAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIP
 Based on Expectancy Theory of Motivation
 A leader should emphasize either path
clarification or adjust rewards depending on the
factors affecting a person‘s motivation
 Theory assumes people can change their
leadership styles to fit the situation

36. Situational Contingencies
Three Important Situational Contingencies
in Path-Goal Theory
 The personal characteristics of group
members
 The work environment
 The situation

37. Path-goal Theory
 Rooted in Expectancy Theory
 Leader behaviors
– Directive
– Supportive
– Achievement-oriented
– Participative

38. Path-Goal Model of Leadership
Follower Characteristics
1. Locus of control
2. Authoritarianism
3. Ability
Outcomes
1. Job satisfaction
2. Performance
3. Acceptance of the leader
Followers
1. Perceptions
2. Motivation
Environmental Factors
1. Tasks
2. Formal authority system
3. Work group
Leader Behavior Styles
1. Directive
2. Supportive
3. Participative
4. Achievement-oriented

39. Supportive Leadership
Supportive
Leadership
• Reduce boredom
• Make job more
tolerable
• Increase self-
confidence
• Lower Anxiety
• Increase the
intrinsic valence
of work
• Increase effort-
performance
expectancy
Increase
effort

40. Directive Leadership
Directive
Leadership
Reduce role
ambiguity
Strengthen reward
contingencies
Increase effort-
performance
expectancy
Increase
performance-
reward expectancies
Increase
subordinate
effort
Increase size
of incentives
Increase outcome
valences for task
success

41. Path-goal Theory
Causal Variables
Leader Behavior
Intervening Variables
Subordinate expectations
Outcome Variables
Subordinate effort
and satisfaction
Situational Moderator Variables
Characteristics of task and environment
Characteristics of subordinates

42. Change Leadership
 Transactional Leader: Provides direction
for subordinates to achieve set objectives
(typical ―good manager‖ using position
power & some personal power)
 Transformational Leader: Special ability to
create innovation & change
(charismatic leader within an organization –
high on position & personal power)

43. Effects of Change Leadership
Transactional
Leadership
Current
state of
expected
subordinate
effort
Normal
expected
subordinate
performance
Transformational
Leadership
Heightened
motivation
to attain
designed
outcome
(extra effort)
Subordinate
performance
beyond
normal
expectations

44. Transformational Leadership
Transformational
Leadership
• Idealized Influence
• Inspiration
• Intellectual stimulation
• Individualized
consideration
Transactional
Leadership
• Contingent reward
• Management by
exception (active or
passive)
• Laissez faire
Performance
beyond
expectations
Agreed upon
performance
Broadening and
elevating follower
goals
Leader/follower
exchange

45. Characteristics of
Transactional Leadership
 Establishes goals and objectives
 Designs work flow and delegates task
assignments
 Negotiates exchange of rewards for effort
 Rewards performance and recognizes
accomplishments
 Searches for deviations from standards and
takes corrective actions

46. Characteristics of
Transformational Leadership
 Charismatic: Provides vision and a sense of mission,
gains respect and trust, instills pride
 Individualized consideration: Gives personal attention,
and treats each person individually, coaches
 Intellectually stimulating: Promotes learning,
encourages rationality, uses careful problem
solving
 Inspirational: Communicates high performance
expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, distills
essential purposes

47. Integrative Framework of
Change Leadership
1. Leader Traits: 13 Ps
2. Success Criteria: Leader power and
leader behavior
3. Situational Variables: Environmental
forces (PEST)
4. Interveining Variables: Subordinate
commitment, dedication, enthusiasm, etc.

48. Participative Management
 Democratic approach of management
 Employees have autonomy in making and
implementing decisions
 Leader invites wider participation of the subordinates
in making and selling decisions
 Exists high degree of delegation of authority
 Managers listen and value the subordinate
suggestions
 High degree of customer focus exists
 A move into TQM process climate

49. Management by Objectives (MBO)
 A management system in which specific performance
goals are jointly determined by employees and their
managers, progress toward accomplishing those goals
is periodically reviewed, rewards are allocated on the
basis of the progress in accomplishing the goals
 Goal achievement is the key of MBO
 Management approach is driven by the nature of
performance objectives and goals
 MBO consists of four elements; goal specificity,
participative

50. Management by Objectives (MBO)
FOUR Characteristics of MBO
 Goal specificity,
 Participative decision making,
 An explicit time period, and
 Performance feedback.
MBO increases organizational
performance and productivity

51. Management by Walking Around (MBWA)
 A term used to describe when a manager is out in the
work area, interacting directly with employees, and
exchanging information about what‘s going on.
 MBWA is a management control process which
follows THREE steps:
 Measuring actual performance,
 Comparing actual performance with the standard
performance, and
 Taking managerial actions for further improvement

52. Management by Exception
 An alternative approach of management when the
other conventional laws management do not work
 Difficult to distinguish from charismatic,
transformational, and transactional leadership
approaches
 Examples:
 Use negative reinforcement if positive reinforcement does
not work
 Reward for faulty deeds if punishment does not work
 Do it yourself to let others know how to follow it
 Induce unexpected surprising ways to doing things

53. Learning Organization
 An organization with exceptional work culture
 The most open type of organization
 An organizational system in which fear of ignorance
and inability is eliminated through relevant training
and development
 People learn through open interactions
 Managers value subordinate problems and their
suggestions
 Creativity creeps from eternal insights of all members
 A move towards TQM process climate

54. Key Findings from Leadership Theories
 Transformational leaders inspire higher performance than
do transactional leaders
 Effective leaders must be concerned about accomplishing
the task and relationships
 Effective leaders know when to tell, sell, participate, or
delegate
 Effective leaders understand mission and strategy, know
how to implement change, motivate employees to high
performance, and teach effectively
 Effective leaders lead by example and are honest and fair.
They inspire confidence.

55. Reasons for Derailment of Top Management
Rank the following in order of importance. Choose 1 for the reason you feel is most
important, 2 for next most important, etc.
a) Betrayal of Trust—failure to meet commitments
b) Cold, aloof, arrogant
c) Overdependence on one‘s boss or mentor
d) Insensitive to others: abrasive, intimidating
e) Overmanaging: unable to delegate or build a team
f) Unable to think broadly or strategically - too much attention to
detail and minor technical problems
g) Unable to adapt to a boss with a different style
h) Unable to select and develop an effective staff
i) Overly ambitious—plays politics, pushes too hard to get ahead
j) Failure to handle specific performance problems - failure to handle
problems then not admit the problem, try to cover up or shift blame
Source: ―What Makes a Top Executive‖ by McCall and Lombardo, Psychology Today, February 1983