2. Definition of Science
A way of exploring and explaining the natural
world
Using a process designed to reduce the
chance of being misled
3. Scientific disciplines
Branches of scientific knowledge that are
limited in size and scope to make them more
manageable.
In reality, all branches of scientific knowledge
are inter-related and dependent on each
other
Can you name some scientific disciplines?
4. Scientific disciplines
All scientific disciplines are either:
1. Physical Science: study of matter
and energy
Astronomy, geology, physics, and
chemistry
2. Biological Science: study of living
organisms
Botany (plants) or Zoology (animals)
See figure 1.1 in your book
5. Chemistry is a scientific discipline
Concerned with the composition, structure
and properties of matter, as well as the
changes it undergoes during chemical
reactions
Incorporates concepts of energy in relation to
chemical processes
6. Chemistry is a scientific discipline
Itis fundamental to an
understanding of all
processes of the living state
Biochemistry: the study of the
chemical processes of living
organisms
7. Chemistry is a scientific discipline
Chemical processes produce
the products needed for our
clothes, housing,
transportation, medications
and recreational pursuits
8. Scientific disciplines
The knowledge in separate scientific
disciplines combined create the whole of
scientific knowledge currently known.
For example, knowledge of how the human
body works requires knowledge in the areas
of biology, chemistry, and physics.
Can you think of some examples?
10. The Scientific Method
Make observations
Ask questions
Develop a hypothesis
Make predictions
Test the predictions
Experiment
Manipulate variables
Independent
Dependent
Conclusions: analyze and
interpret results
Peer Review/Publication
The “scientific method” is a
formalized version of the procedure
any of us might take, using common
sense, to resolve a problem.
(Withgott and Brennan, 2007)
13. 3. MULTIPLE HYPOTHESES
What are all the possible
answers (hypotheses) to
the question?
Example: The light bulb is
burned out
Example 2: ?
14. 4. PREDICTIONS
What data would support a particular
hypothesis (= expected data) and/or
what data would refute the
hypothesis?
Example: The light bulb will rattle
when shaken
16. 6. TENTATIVE CONCLUSIONS
Which hypotheses were supported
(not refuted) by the actual data?
Write up report (introduction,
methods, results, discussion) for
publication
17. 7. PEER REVIEW & PUBLICATION
Submit your report to a scientific journal that is
peer-reviewed, meaning that your methods, data,
tentative conclusions will be scrutinized by
scientists whose reputation is at stake if they allow
your report to be published.
Publication leads to creation of scientific information
18. The Scientific Method
Scientific
understanding
advances through
evaluation and
dissemination of
information to the
scientific
community.
How does this
information get
disseminated to the
public?
(Withgott and Brennan, 2007
20. Nature of scientific proof
Hypothesis:
A possible explanation or statement that might be
true and will be tested by the scientific method.
Can be falsified
Cannot be positively proven
Therefore, hypothesis are accepted not proven
21. Nature of scientific proof
Example:
Observation: All the swans you have ever seen
are white
Hypothesis: All swans are white
Test: examine large number of swans
Tentative conclusion: all swans are white
(hypothesis accepted)
If you looked at a million white swans, there
could still be a black one
However, if you found just one black swan,
your hypothesis would be falsified
22. Nature of scientific proof
When a hypothesis withstands RIGOROUS
testing, especially over time, it becomes a
theory
Theory:
A hypothesis that has been rigorously tested and
over time has become generally accepted by the
scientific community as correct
23. Nature of Scientific Proof
Some examples of theories are:
Theory of relativity
Theory of plate tectonics
Theory of evolution
Eventually theories become laws
Law of gravity
24. Nature of Scientific Knowledge
The main body of science is very stable and
grows by being corrected slowly
So, although scientists accept that scientific
knowledge is always open to improvement,
the main body of knowledge is well-accepted
and stable
25. Nature of Scientific Knowledge
Scientific fact
A valid observation about some natural
phenomenon obtained by carrying out
experiments
Scientific theory:
A hypothesis that has been tested and validated
over a long period of time
Theory of evolution
26. Nature of Scientific Knowledge
Scientific
law: generalization that
summarizes facts about natural phenomena
Law of gravity
Scientific law vs scientific theory:
Law addresses how it behaves
Theory addresses why it behaves that way
27. Scientific Worldview
Thereare several beliefs underlying the
work of scientists:
By working together over time, people can
figure out how the world works
Knowledge is both stable and changing
Scientists become excited by new ideas, but are
skeptics that judge ideas by the strength of the
evidence that supports them.
28. Scientific Worldview
The universe is a unified system
functions in accordance with fixed natural laws that do not
change from time to time or from place to place
Knowledge gained from studying one part of it can often be
applied to other parts of it
All events arise from some cause or causes and, in
turn, cause other events.
We can use our senses and reasoning abilities to
detect and describe natural laws that underlie the
cause and effect relationships we observe in nature.
34. Manipulative or controlled
study
Uses a model system to control and manipulate variables
An experiment in which variables are taken into account
Based on comparing a control group with an experimental
group
Both groups are treated identically except for one variable or
factor
This factor is changed for the experimental group but not the
control group
If an effect is seen in the experimental group but not the
control group that indicates that the factor changed is the
cause of the effect
35. Examples of Controlled
Studies
Studying the effect of nutrients on plant
growth—add or change the kinds & amounts
of nutrients in natural or artificial setting
Studying the effect of grazing on plant
communities—exclude grazing on study plots
& allow grazing on others
Challenge: hard to do over large scales of
space & time
36. Controlled study
Variables:factors that affect observations
or experiments
Dependent variable—response that is
measured
Independent variable—varied or manipulated
by researcher (cause)
37. AN EXAMPLE OF A
CONTROLLED STUDY
THE MEALWORM MYSTERY
38. MEALWORM MYSTERY
A student conducted 4 experiments to determine
how mealworms respond to light and moisture.
All variables except light and moisture were held
constant from experiment to experiment.
For each experiment, 12 mealworms were placed
in the center of a box and then their positions
were recorded 24 hours later.
39. EXPERIMENT 1
mealworm
QUESTION: Are mealworms attracted to
light?
QUESTION 2: Are mealworms affected by
moisture?
Answer? You can’t tell; it could be either
or both
40. EXPERIMENT 2
QUESTION: Are mealworms affected by
light?
QUESTION 2: Are mealworms affected by
moisture?
Answers? They are affected by light; we
don’t know about moisture
41. EXPERIMENT 3
QUESTION: Are mealworms affected by
light?
QUESTION 2: Are mealworms affected by
moisture?
Answers? With just this experiment, it
seems they didn’t move
42. EXPERIMENT 3
Using the
information
from the
other 2
experiments…
QUESTION: Are mealworms affected by
light?
QUESTION 2: Are mealworms affected by
moisture?
Answers? Yes and Yes (despite attraction
to light, they avoided wet
43. THE EXPERIMENTS
1 mealworm 2
3 Without the
controlled
experiment we
would know
nothing!
QUESTION: Which variables affect mealworm movement based on the
above experiments (note that movement may be either toward or away
from something)? A. Light but not moisture. B. Moisture but not light. C.
Both light and moisture. D. Neither light nor moisture. E. Can’t tell.