IT244 - Week 2 -Ch 1.pptx

Database System Concepts, 6th Ed.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use
Chapter 1: Introduction

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
Database Management System (DBMS)
n DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise
l Collection of interrelated data
l Set of programs to access the data
l An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use
n Database Applications:
l Banking: transactions
l Airlines: reservations, schedules
l Universities: registration, grades
l Sales: customers, products, purchases
l Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
l Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
l Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
n Databases can be very large.
n Databases touch all aspects of our lives

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University Database Example
n Application program examples
l Add new students, instructors, and courses
l Register students for courses, and generate class rosters
l Assign grades to students, compute grade point averages (GPA)
and generate transcripts
n In the early days, database applications were built directly on top of
file systems

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Drawbacks of using file systems to store data
l Data redundancy and inconsistency
4 Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files
l Difficulty in accessing data
4 Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
l Data isolation — multiple files and formats
l Integrity problems
4 Integrity constraints (e.g., account balance > 0) become
“buried” in program code rather than being stated explicitly
4 Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones

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Drawbacks of using file systems to store data (Cont.)
l Atomicity of updates
4 Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial updates
carried out
4 Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should either
complete or not happen at all
l Concurrent access by multiple users
4 Concurrent access needed for performance
4 Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
– Example: Two people reading a balance (say 100) and updating it by
withdrawing money (say 50 each) at the same time
l Security problems
4 Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data
Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems

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Levels of Abstraction
n Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., customer) is stored.
n Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships
among the data.
type instructor = record
ID : string;
name : string;
dept_name : string;
salary : integer;
end;
n View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can
also hide information (such as an employee’s salary) for security
purposes.

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View of Data
An architecture for a database system

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Instances and Schemas
n Similar to types and variables in programming languages
n Schema – the logical structure of the database
l Example: The database consists of information about a set of customers and
accounts and the relationship between them
l Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
l Physical schema: database design at the physical level
l Logical schema: database design at the logical level
n Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time
l Analogous to the value of a variable
n Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema without
changing the logical schema
l Applications depend on the logical schema
l In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components should
be well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously influence others.

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Data Models
n A collection of tools for describing
l Data
l Data relationships
l Data semantics
l Data constraints
n Relational model
n Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
n Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)
n Semistructured data model (XML)
n Other older models:
l Network model
l Hierarchical model

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Relational Model
n Relational model (Chapter 2)
n Example of tabular data in the relational model
Columns
Row
s

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A Sample Relational Database

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Data Manipulation Language (DML)
n Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by the
appropriate data model
l DML also known as query language
n Two classes of languages
l Procedural – user specifies what data is required and how to get
those data
l Declarative (nonprocedural) – user specifies what data is
required without specifying how to get those data
n SQL is the most widely used query language

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Data Definition Language (DDL)
n Specification notation for defining the database schema
Example: create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2))
n DDL compiler generates a set of table templates stored in a data dictionary
n Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
l Database schema
l Integrity constraints
4 Primary key (ID uniquely identifies instructors)
4 Referential integrity (references constraint in SQL)
– e.g. dept_name value in any instructor tuple must appear in
department relation
l Authorization

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SQL
n SQL: widely used non-procedural language
l Example: Find the name of the instructor with ID 22222
select name
from instructor
where instructor.ID = ‘22222’
l Example: Find the ID and building of instructors in the Physics dept.
select instructor.ID, department.buildingfrom instructor,
departmentwhere instructor.dept_name = department.dept_name and
department.dept_name = ‘Physics’
n Application programs generally access databases through one of
l Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
l Application program interface (e.g., ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL
queries to be sent to a database
n Chapters 3, 4 and 5

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Database Design
The process of designing the general structure of the database:
n Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema. Database design
requires that we find a “good” collection of relation schemas.
l Business decision – What attributes should we record in the
database?
l Computer Science decision – What relation schemas should we
have and how should the attributes be distributed among the various
relation schemas?
n Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the database

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Database Design?
n Is there any problem with this design?

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Design Approaches
n Normalization Theory (Chapter 8)
l Formalize what designs are bad, and test for them
n Entity Relationship Model (Chapter 7)
l Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships
4 Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is
distinguishable from other objects
– Described by a set of attributes
4 Relationship: an association among several entities
l Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:

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The Entity-Relationship Model
n Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships
l Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is distinguishable
from other objects
4 Described by a set of attributes
l Relationship: an association among several entities
n Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:
What happened to dept_name of instructor and student?

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Object-Relational Data Models
n Relational model: flat, “atomic” values
n Object Relational Data Models
l Extend the relational data model by including object orientation
and constructs to deal with added data types.
l Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including non-
atomic values such as nested relations.
l Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative
access to data, while extending modeling power.
l Provide upward compatibility with existing relational languages.

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XML: Extensible Markup Language
n Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C)
n Originally intended as a document markup language not a
database language
n The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested tag structures
made XML a great way to exchange data, not just documents
n XML has become the basis for all new generation data interchange
formats.
n A wide variety of tools is available for parsing, browsing and
querying XML documents/data

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Storage Management
n Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface
between the low-level data stored in the database and the application
programs and queries submitted to the system.
n The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:
l Interaction with the file manager
l Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
n Issues:
l Storage access
l File organization
l Indexing and hashing

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Query Processing
1. Parsing and translation
2. Optimization
3. Evaluation

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Query Processing (Cont.)
n Alternative ways of evaluating a given query
l Equivalent expressions
l Different algorithms for each operation
n Cost difference between a good and a bad way of evaluating a query can
be enormous
n Need to estimate the cost of operations
l Depends critically on statistical information about relations which the
database must maintain
l Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to compute cost of
complex expressions

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Transaction Management
n What if the system fails?
n What if more than one user is concurrently updating the same data?
n A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single
logical function in a database application
n Transaction-management component ensures that the database
remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system failures (e.g.,
power failures and operating system crashes) and transaction failures.
n Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among the
concurrent transactions, to ensure the consistency of the database.

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Database Users and Administrators
Database

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Database System Internals

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Database Architecture
The architecture of a database systems is greatly influenced by
the underlying computer system on which the database is running:
n Centralized
n Client-server
n Parallel (multi-processor)
n Distributed

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History of Database Systems
n 1950s and early 1960s:
l Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage
4 Tapes provided only sequential access
l Punched cards for input
n Late 1960s and 1970s:
l Hard disks allowed direct access to data
l Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use
l Ted Codd defines the relational data model
4 Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work
4 IBM Research begins System R prototype
4 UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype
l High-performance (for the era) transaction processing

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History (cont.)
n 1980s:
l Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems
4 SQL becomes industrial standard
l Parallel and distributed database systems
l Object-oriented database systems
n 1990s:
l Large decision support and data-mining applications
l Large multi-terabyte data warehouses
l Emergence of Web commerce
n Early 2000s:
l XML and XQuery standards
l Automated database administration
n Later 2000s:
l Giant data storage systems
4 Google BigTable, Yahoo PNuts, Amazon, ..

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End of Chapter 1

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Figure 1.02

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Figure 1.04

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Figure 1.06

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