Thanx to see our report again, this time we talked every single information about steel just like properties and manufacturing, advantages and disadvantages, properties with classification of steel. So if you have any questions or you notice mistakes you can send a message to me to this email Alirizgar234@gmail.com

1. 1
Salahuddin University – Erbil
College of Engineering
Civil Engineer Department
(Steel)
Prepared By:
❖ Shadi hamid salih ❖ hemin omer hamadameen
Supervisor:
Zrar S. Othman
Ali Rizgar
March 27, 2019

2. 2
Table Of Content
body of report page
1.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..………(4)
2.0 Types or classification of steel……………………………………………………………….(5)
2.1 Carbon Steel………………………………………………………………………………………(5)
2.2 Alloy Steel………………………………………………………………………………………….(6)
2.3 Stainless Steel……………………………………………………………………………….……(6)
2.4 Tool Steel…………………………………………………………………………………………..(6)
3.0 Manufacturing of steel……………………………………………………………………………(7)
3.1 The Modern Steel Production Process…………………………………………….….(7)
4.0 Advantages and disadvantages of steel………………………………………………….(9)
4.1 Advantages of steel…………………………………………………………………………….(9)
4.2 Disadvantages of steel………………………………………………………………………..(10)
5.0 Mechanical and Physical properties of steel……………………………………………(10)
5.1 Basic Physical Properties of Steel…………………………………………………….….(10)
5.2 Stainless Steel……………………………………………………………………………………..(11)
5.3 Additives to Steel………………………………………………………………………………..(11)
5.4 Mechanical Properties of Steel…………………………………………………………...(11)
5.5 Table with mechanical properties of common steel types…………………..(13)
6.0 Required tests for steel……………………………………………………………………………(13)
6.1 Steel Testing Key Phrases…………………………………………………………………….(13)
6.2 Material Strength Test: Yield, Tensile and Elongation………………………….(15)
6.3 Ultrasonic Testing for Defects……………………………………………………………..(16)
6.4 Charpy V-Notch Test for Toughness…………………………………………………….(17)
6.5 Brinell Hardness Test………………………………………………………………….……….(17)

3. 3
7.0 Table of reference……………………………………………………………………………………(18)
8.0 pictures reference table…………………………………………………………………………..(18)

4. 4
1.0 Introduction:
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, and sometimes other
elements. Because of its high tensile strength and low cost, it is
a major component used in buildings, infrastructure, tools,
ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons.
Iron is the base metal of steel. Iron is able to take on two
crystalline forms (allotropic forms), body centered cubic and
face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. In the
body-centered cubic arrangement, there is an iron atom in the
center and eight atoms at the vertices of each cubic unit cell; in the Fig 1
face-centered cubic, there is one atom at the center of each of the six faces of the
cubic unit cell and eight atoms at its vertices. It is the interaction of the allotropes
of iron with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, that gives steel and cast iron
their range of unique properties.
In pure iron, the crystal structure has relatively little
resistance to the iron atoms slipping past one another,
and so pure iron is quite ductile, or soft and easily
formed. In steel, small amounts of carbon, other
elements, and inclusions within the iron act as
hardening agents that prevent the movement of
dislocations that are common in the crystal lattices of iron atoms. Fig 2
The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying
the amount of carbon and many other alloying elements, as well as controlling their
chemical and physical makeup in the final steel (either as solute elements, or as
precipitated phases), slows the movement of those dislocations that make pure
iron ductile, and thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include
such things as the hardness, quenching behavior, need for annealing, tempering
behavior, yield strength, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. The increase in
steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by reducing iron's ductility.
Steel was produced in bloomery furnaces for thousands of years, but its large-scale,
industrial use began only after more efficient production methods were devised in
the 17th century, with the production of blister steel and then crucible steel. With
the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century, a new era of mass-

5. 5
produced steel began. This was followed by the Siemens–Martin process and then
the Gilchrist–Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their
introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron.
Further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), largely
replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing
the quality of the final product. Today, steel is one of the most common manmade
materials in the world, with more than 1.6 billion tons produced annually. Modern
steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards
organizations.
2.0 Types or classification of steel:
Steel is an alloy made from iron and carbon. There are several distinct grades of
steel that have unique chemical compositions based on the different amounts of
carbon and added alloys.
When determining the type of steel that you want to buy, it is important to know
there are four different types of steel that are classified based on their chemical
structure and physical properties: carbon steels, alloy steels, stainless steels, and
tool steels. We'll outline each of the following steel types below.
2.1 carbon steel:
Carbon steel is dull and matte in appearance and is
vulnerable to corrosion. Carbon steel can contain other
alloys, such as manganese, silicon, and copper. There
are three main types of carbon steel: low carbon steel,
medium carbon steel, and high carbon steel. Low
carbon steel is the most common and typically
contains less than .30% of carbon. Medium carbon steel Fig 3
contains up to .60% of carbon as well as manganese and is much stronger than low
carbon steel. High carbon steel contains up to 1.5% carbon steel and is the
strongest of the categories and can often be hard to work with.

6. 6
2.2 Alloy Steel:
Alloy steels are a mixture of several metals, including
nickel, copper, and aluminum. Alloy steels tend to be
cheaper and are used in mechanical work, car parts,
pipelines, and motors. The strength and property of
alloy steels depends on the concentration of elements
they contain.
. Fig 4
2.3 Stainless Steel:
Stainless steels are shiny, corrosion resistant, and used in
many products, including home appliances, backsplashes
and cooking utensils. It has a low carbon content Stainless
steel contains the alloy chromium and can also include
nickel or molybdenum. Stainless steel is strong and can
withstand high temperatures. There are more than 100
grades of stainless steel, making it an extremely versatile
material that is customizable depending on your purpose. Fig 5
2.4 Tool Steel:
Tool steels are hard and heat and scrape-resistant. They are
named tool steels because they are often used to make
metal tools, such as stamping, cutting, and mold-making
tools. They are also commonly used to make hammers.
There are several different grades of steel that can be used
for distinct applications. Fig 6

7. 7
3.0 Manufacturing of steel:
Steel is the world's most popular construction material because of its unique
combination of durability, workability, and cost. It's an iron alloy that contains 0.2-
2 percent carbon by weight.
According to the World Steel Association, some of the largest steel producing
countries are China, Japan, US, and India. China accounts for roughly 50 percent of
this production.
The world's largest steel producers include ArcelorMittal, China Baowu Steel
Group, NSSMC Group, and HBIS Group.
3.1 The Modern Steel Production Process:
Methods for manufacturing steel have evolved
significantly since industrial production began in the
late 19th century. Modern methods, however, are still
based on the same premise as the original Bessemer
Process, which uses oxygen to lower the carbon content in iron. Fig 7
Today, steel production makes use of recycled materials as well as traditional raw
materials, such as iron ore, coal, and limestone. Two processes, basic oxygen
steelmaking (BOS) and electric arc furnaces (EAF), account for virtually all steel
production.
 Modern steelmaking can be broken down into six steps:
Ironmaking, the first step, involves the raw inputs of iron ore, coke, and lime being
melted in a blast furnace. The resulting molten iron also referred to as hot metal
still contains 4-4.5 percent carbon and other impurities that make it brittle.
Primary steelmaking has two primary methods: BOS (Basic Oxygen Furnace) and
the more modern EAF (Electric Arc Furnace) methods. BOS methods add recycled
scrap steel to the molten iron in a converter.
At high temperatures, oxygen is blown through the metal, which reduces the
carbon content to between 0-1.5 percent. EAF methods, however, feed recycled

8. 8
steel scrap through use high-power electric arcs (temperatures up to 1650 C) to
melt the metal and convert it into high-quality steel.
Secondary steelmaking involves treating the molten steel produced from both BOS
and EAF routes to adjust the steel composition. This is done by adding or removing
certain elements and/or manipulating the temperature and production
environment. Depending on the types of steel required, the following secondary
steelmaking processes can be used:
❖ Stirring.
❖ Ladle furnace.
❖ Ladle injection.
❖ Degassing.
❖ CAS-OB (composition adjustment by sealed argon bubbling with oxygen
blowing).
Continuous casting sees the molten steel cast into a cooled mold causing a thin
steel shell to solidify. The shell strand is withdrawn using guided rolls and fully
cooled and solidified. The strand is cut into desired lengths depending on
application; slabs for flat products (plate and strip), blooms for sections (beams),
billets for long products (wires) or thin strips.
In primary forming, the steel that is cast is then formed into various shapes, often
by hot rolling, a process that eliminates cast defects and achieves the required
shape and surface quality. Hot rolled products are divided into flat products, long
products, seamless tubes, and specialty products.
Finally, it's time for manufacturing, fabrication, and finishing. Secondary forming
techniques give the steel its final shape and properties. These techniques include:
➢ Shaping (cold rolling), which is done below the metal's recrystallization point,
meaning mechanical stress—not heat—affects change.
➢ Machining (drilling).
➢ Joining (welding).
➢ Coating (galvanizing).
➢ Heat treatment (tempering).
➢ Surface treatment (carburizing).

9. 9
4.0 Advantages and disadvantages of steel:
4.1 Advantages (✓):
✓ Steel is a kind of metal and Steel is resistant to rust.
✓ Steel can be reuse and easy to recycle.
✓ Steel can be made from iron, carbon, manganese, phosphorous, sulfur,
silicon, nickel, chromium etc.,
✓ Steel is also used in making household appliances.
✓ Steel is an alloy of iron and Steel which is used in construction of roads,
railway, buildings etc., because of its hardness and tensile strength.
✓ Steel is strong, hard and flexible metal.
✓ Stainless Steel is derived from Steel.
✓ Skyscraper can be made of Steel.
✓ Steel is used in a car frame.
✓ A Ship are made of Steel.
✓ Steel can be melted and Steel material is available easily.
✓ Steel is also used in making stool and other office infrastructure.
✓ Steel in used in construction of a buildings and infrastructure.
✓ Steel is used in construction of bridge.
✓ Cabinets are made from Steel.
✓ Steel is used in automobile industry for making bikes, cars etc.,
✓ Steel is used in hospitals.
✓ Steel is generally used in Civil Engineering.
✓ Steel is used in manufacturing cars: for example, engine, body parts and
doors of cars are made up of Steel.
✓ Steel is used in manufacturing of Electrical appliances such as washing
machine, cooker, fridge etc.,
✓ Steel is also used in make food packaging materials such as cans and other
storage materials.
✓ Steel is also used in building products such as concrete rebars, metallic
frames etc.,
✓ Steel is used in making rail road tracks.
✓ Steel is also used in making train compartments.

10. 10
✓ Steel is used in wheels and axles.
✓ Steel is also used in oils and gas wells.
✓ Steel can be used in manufacturing storage tanks.
✓ Steel in used in wind turbines.
✓ Steel is also used in manufacturing cranes.
✓ Steel can be used making transmission towers.
✓ Steel is used to make different types of machinery and tools.
✓ Protective instrument in companies are made up of Steel.
4.2 Disadvantages ():
 The cost of production of Steel may be higher.
 The resistance of Steel against fire is weaker compared to concrete.
 Steel is heavy and expensive to transport.
5.0 Mechanical and Physical properties:
5.1 Basic Physical Properties of Steel:
Steel has a density of (7,850 kg/m3), making it (7.85) times as dense as water. Its
melting point of (1,510 C) is higher than that of most metals. In comparison, the
melting point of bronze is (1,040 C), that of copper is (1,083 C), that of cast iron is
(1,300 C), and that of nickel is (1,453 C). Tungsten, however, melts at a searing
(3,410 C), which is not surprising since this element is used in light bulb filaments.
Steel's coefficient of linear expansion at 20 C, in µm per meter per degree Celsius,
is 11.1, which makes is more resistant to changing size with changes in temperature
than, for example, copper (16.7), tin (21.4) and lead (29.1).

11. 11
5.2 Stainless Steel:
Stainless steels are employed in construction when corrosion resistance is a major
asset, as with knives that must maintain a sharp edge. Another common reason
stainless steels are used is their high-temperature properties. In some projects,
high-temperature oxidation resistance is an absolute requirement, while in others,
high-temperature strength is a primary need.
5.3 Additives to Steel:
Small amounts of other metals added to steel change its properties in ways
favorable to certain industrial applications. For example, cobalt results in higher
magnetic permeability and is used in magnets. Manganese adds strength and
hardness, and the product is suitable for heavy-duty railway crossings.
Molybdenum maintains its strength at high temperatures, so this additive is handy
when making speed drill tips. Nickel and chromium resist corrosion and are usually
added in the manufacture of steel surgical instruments.
5.4 Mechanical Properties of Steel:
The physical properties of steel include: high strength, low weight, durability,
ductility and corrosive resistance. Steel offers great strength, even though it is light
in weight. In fact, the ratio of strength to weight for steel is lower than any other
building material. The term ductility means steel can easily be moulded to form any
desired shape.
Other physical properties of steel which are totally different are its component
elements viz. iron and carbon. Steel has the ability to cool down rapidly from an
extremely hot temperature after being subjected to water or oil. Physical
properties depends on the percentage composition of the constituent elements
and the manufacturing process. A particular amount of carbon can be dissolved in
iron at a specific temperature. Unlike the constituent element iron, steel does not

12. 12
corrode easily after being exposed to moisture and water. The dimensional stability
of steel is a desired property, as the dimension of steel remains unchanged even
after many years or being subjected to extreme environmental conditions. Steel is
a good conductor of electricity, i.e. electricity can pass through steel.
Steel grades are classified by many standard organizations, based on the
composition and the physical properties of the metal. The deciding factor for the
grade of steel is basically its chemical composition, and the supplied condition. The
higher the carbon content, the harder and stronger the steel metal is. A high-
quality steel containing less carbon is more ductile.
Earlier forms of steel consisted of more carbon, as compared to the present-day
steel. Today, the steel manufacturing process is as such, that less carbon is added
and the metal is cooled down immediately, so as to retain the desirable physical
properties of steel. Rapid cooling (quenching) of steel also alters the grain
structure. There are other types of steel such as galvanized steel and stainless steel
(corrosion-resistant steel). Galvanized steel is coated with zinc to protect it from
corrosion, whereas stainless steel contains about 10 percent of chromium in its
composition.
Material
properties
SAE1010 SAE1008 SAE1012 300WA JISGV132 DD11 S355 S235 S275 Corten_A
Tensile
strength,
ultimate
(Mpa)
min 310 303 300 390 490 340 410 470
Tensile
strength,
ultimate
(Mpa)
max 360 358 370 540 440 630 470 560 630
Tensile
strength,
Yield
(Mpa)
min 180 180 450 170 355 235 275
Tensile
strength,
max 240 240 310 620 270 340 355

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5.5 Table with mechanical properties of common steel types:
6.0 Required tests for steel:
Steel is an essential material used in a variety of applications. Choosing the right
grade of steel requires evaluating chemical composition and mechanical
properties. This article will explore and compare common steel materials tests and
provide insight into understanding the results.
With over 3,500 grades of steel available, engineers depend upon accurate material
testing to determine the materials needed for each specific project. Chemical
composition of steel materials tells a lot about the material's tendencies, but
testing ultimately proves the strength, hardness and quality of the final material.
6.1 Steel Testing Key Phrases:
Before exploring common material tests, it is important to understand a few
keywords and phrases:
Yield
(Mpa)
Elongation
at Break
in (%)
min 32 42 12 17 14
Elongation
at Break
in (%)
max 48 48 19 20 25 23 22 26 22 20
Modulus
of
Elasticity,
GPA
200 200 205

14. 14
Coupon
A coupon is a test sample cut from a master plate (or prepared from the same
forging process). The coupon is cut or produced in a way that ensures it is
representative of the master plate and is
used for testing.
There are two common types of coupons:
longitudinal coupon and transverse coupon.
A longitudinal coupon -- often abbreviated
as LCVN -- is a coupon that is taken longitudinal Fig 8
to the rolling direction of the plate.
A transverse coupon (or TCVN), is taken transverse to the rolling direction of the
plate.
LCVN coupons will have higher yield and tensile points than TCVN coupons, since
LCVN coupons go with the steel grain. Structural engineers often look at both LCVN
and TCVN coupon test results when choosing their material.
Lamination
A lamination is an imperfection or defect in a steel (or other metal alloy) material
that can impair structural performance. Laminations are
caused by a variety of things, including the presence of
folds, layers, foreign materials and trapped gases during
the rolling of steel.
During steel production, steel is formed into an ingot -- or
a large block -- and rolled to the desired size and
thickness. Whatever defect or foreign material is present Fig 9
in the ingot will spread as the material is rolled.
Some steel materials have an acceptance threshold for laminations. This means
that some laminations are acceptable, up until a point when the threat of material
failure becomes too great.

15. 15
Mill Test Reports
A mill test report (MTR) is a document that shows material origin and composition,
as well as material testing results. An MTR is a quality assurance document that
tells engineers the exact makeup and performance of the material.
MTRs are often provided with every steel material purchase. If not initially
provided, an MTR can always be requested.
MTRs are required to show material chemistry and strength test results, but will
also show results for quality, toughness and hardness if those tests were run.
6.2 Material Strength Test: Yield, Tensile and Elongation:
One of the most common and important tests conducted on steel material is a
mechanical properties test that evaluates the material's yield point, tensile
strength and elongation percentage. The test ultimately indicates the maximum
load the material can bear before failure.
Yield point is the point where the stress of a force permanently changes the shape
of the material. Take a bookshelf as an example. The yield point occurs when the
weight of the books causes the shelf to bow permanently, even after the books are
removed.
Tensile strength is the force required to cause the material to break or fail. Thinking
of our bookshelf example, the tensile strength of the shelf would equal the force of
books (book mass multiplied by acceleration of gravity) it would take to snap the
shelf in two.
Yield and tensile are typically expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) or thousand
pounds per square inch (ksi).
Elongation is simply how much a material can bend or stretch in relation to its
original length. Elongation is calculated as the percentage difference between the
yield point (remember, this is the point at which the material DOES NOT return to
its original shape) and the tensile strength (or the point where the material breaks).
Elongation is often used to indicate ductility, as well. The greater the elongation,
the more ductility a material has.

16. 16
Below are yield, tensile and elongation measurements for two common grades of
steel: A36 mild steel and A572-50 high strength low alloy structural steel. The data
show that A572-50 can bear a greater load than A36, but A36 is more ductile.
Strength Measurements
Strength Point ASTM A36 ASTM A572-50
Yield Point (psi) 36,000 50,000
Tensile Strength (psi) 58,000-80,000 65,000
Elongation % (200 mm) 18% 20%
6.3 Ultrasonic Testing for Defects:
As mentioned above, laminations can occur during the manufacturing of steel.
Ultrasonic testing (UT) uses high-frequency soundwaves to detect laminations in
the body of steel material. UT is a nondestructive test that is performed on the steel
material itself (not a coupon).
In UT, a probe sends a sound wave into the material. When the sound hits a barrier
(such as air), it will bounce back towards the probe. The probe's ultrasonic
transponder converts those sound waves into electrical energy, which can be read
on a test machine screen.
Fig 10
UT is highly accurate, with accuracies between +/-0.025 mm and +/-0.001 mm.
Ultrasonic testing gives engineers important information regarding their material,
ensuring safe and proper future use.

17. 17
6.4 Charpy V-Notch Test for Toughness:
The Charpy V-Notch test -- or Charpy Impact Test -- measures a material's ability to
absorb energy, or impact, within a given temperature range. The test gets its name
from Georges Charpy, who first standardized impact testing.
Brittle materials can absorb less impact before fracturing, and colder temperatures
increase brittleness. For projects that require steel material exposed to cold
temperatures, the Charpy test helps engineers choose the correct grade of steel.
The Charpy test pits a small piece of test material against a heavy pendulum
hammer. The test piece has a V-shaped notch carved in the middle, which gives the
test its name. The pendulum swings into the test piece (often bending, if not
snapping the piece), and the absorbed energy is measured.
This test can be conducted and certified at different temperatures, which will be
reflected in the mill test report.
6.5 Brinell Hardness Test:
While strength is the amount of force material can withstand before deforming or
failing and toughness is the ability to resist fracturing under force, hardness is the
ability to withstand friction and abrasion.
For example, a diamond is very difficult to scratch (high hardness) but is relatively
easy to shatter (low toughness).
The Brinell hardness test -- coined after engineer Johan August Brinell who
standardized the test -- uses a small steel indenter and applied force to dent a
material. The size of the dent is used to calculate the Brinell hardness number
(BHN), which is a standard unit of hardness.
Mild A36 steel has a BHN of 133, whereas an abrasion resistant grade of steel has
a BHN greater than 330.
Related: Understanding Abrasion Resistant Steel Plate
Hardness is important for applications that require abrasion resistance instead of
strength or toughness. Examples include conveyors, buckets, body armor and
grates.

18. 18
Not every test discussed in this article may be required for every material need.
Understanding testing options and the differences in what they measure will help
engineers make informed material decisions for their projects.
Leeco Steel can supply a wide range of steel plate material, depending on
engineering specifications, and MTRs are included with every order invoice. Browse
Leeco Steel's steel plate offering and build your quote today.
7.0 Reference’s table:
Source
no.
References
1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel
2 https://www.capitalsteel.net/news/blog/types-of-steel
3 https://www.thebalance.com/steel-production-2340173
4 http://frndzzz.com/Advantages-and-Disadvantages-of-Steel
5 https://sciencing.com/chemical-physical-properties-steel-
5548364.html
6 http://www.tubecon.co.za/en/technical-info/tubecon-
wiki/mechanical-properties-of-common-steel.html
7 https://www.leecosteel.com/material-testing-for-steel.html
8.0 pictures reference table:
Fig no. Reference
1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel
2 https://gulfnewsjournal.com/stories/510630308-saudi-arabia-steel-
manufacturing-industry-booming
3 https://www.reliance-foundry.com/blog/carbon-steel-versus-
stainless-steel#gref

19. 19
4 http://www.qilu-steel.com/china-gold-supplier-for-alloy-steel-for-
greenland-factory.html
5 https://www.connox.com/categories/kitchenware/saucepans-
cooking-pots/eva-trio-stainless-steel-pot-set.html
6 https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=943
7 https://minnesotairon.org/12-reasons-minnesotans-proud-
minnesota-iron-mining/
8 https://energy.ornl.gov/Mg/home/home.cgi?nav=2
9 https://www.ndt.net/article/jae/papers/28-234.pdf
10 https://www.leecosteel.com/material-testing-for-steel.html