This document discusses the principles and procedures of volumetric analysis. Volumetric analysis involves titrating an analyte of unknown concentration with a titrant using an indicator to mark the endpoint. The key types of titrations used are acid-base, oxidation-reduction, precipitation, and complex formation titrations. Methods of volumetric analysis include direct titration, back titration, and replacement titration. The equivalence point represents complete reaction between analyte and titrant while the endpoint is the visual change in the indicator.

1. VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
MD ALTAMASH AHMAD
1850951001
PHARM.D 1ST YEAR

2. PRINCIPLE OF VOLUMETRIC
ANALYSIS
• Volumetric Analysis is a method of
analysis based on titration.
• In volumetric analysis, a chemical
called a titrant is added to a solution
of unknown concentration called
analyte (titrand) together with an
indicator that will mark the time at
which all of the analyte has been
reacted.

3. PROCEDURE OF VOLUMETRIC
ANALYSIS
1. A typical titration starts with a beaker or flask containing a
precise volume of the analyte and small amount of indicator
placed underneath a calibrated burette containing the titrant.
2. The titrant used is a primary standard which is most pure and
free from water of crystallization is filled in burette
3. The titrand (analyte) is impure and of unknown concentration is
kept in conical flask with an indicator to indicate the end point

4. TYPES OF REACTION USED IN
VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
1. Acid – Base Titrations-
2. Oxidation-Reduction Titrations –

5. 3. Precipitation Titrations –
4. Complex Formation Titrations –

6. DIFFERENT METHODS OF ANALYSIS
1. Direct Titration –
• In this method, the titrant reacts directly with the analyte usually in
the conical flask in the presence of an indicator
2. Back Titration –
• Back titration is used when the analyte either does not react with
the standard solution B or reacts too slowly
• In this event, a previously known excess of another standard
solution E is added to the analyte, and the residue of E after the
reaction with the analyte A is complete is titrated with the standard
solution B

7. 3. Replacement Titration –
• Titration by substitution is used when direct titration of the analyte
is difficult, as is the case when no suitable titrant or essential
indicator is available.
• In this event, a reaction with an undetermined excess of a suitable
reagent E is used to convert the analyte A into another compound
D

8. EQUIVALENCE POINT
Equivalence point is the theoretical completion of the reaction
i.e. the point at which equivalent moles of titrant is added to
the analyte solution in the conical flask.
END POINT
Endpoint is a physical change in the titration solution as
determined by an indicator i.e. colour change, precipitate
formation, etc.

9. PRIMARY STANDARD
• Primary standard is a substance that is 100 % pure or its
purity is well known .
• For example, if the weight required for the preparation of a
substance solution is 9.5 g and if the substance powder is
100% pure we weigh 9.5 g and dissolve it in the desired
volume to get a standard solution

10. SECONDARY STANDARD
• A secondary standard solution is a chemical term that refers
to a solution that has its concentration measured by titration
with a primary standard solution
• A secondary standard has a less purity than a primary
standard. These are less stable and chemically reactive than
primary standards.

11. DIFFERENT METHODS OF EXPRESSING
CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS
1. Molarity (M) - Used for quantitative reactions in solution and
titrations; mass and molecular mass of solute and volume of
solution are known.
2. Molality (m) - Used in determining how colligative properties
vary with solute concentration; masses and molecular mass of
solute are known.
mol/L
mol/kg

12. 3. Mole fraction (X) - Used for partial pressures of gases and
vapour pressures of some solutions; mass and molecular
of each component are known.
4. Mass percentage (%) - Useful when masses are known but
molecular masses are unknown.

13. 5. Parts per thousand (ppt) - Used in the health sciences, ratio
solutions are typically expressed as a proportion, such as 1:1000.
6. Parts per million (ppm) - Used for trace quantities; masses are
known but molecular masses may be unknown.
7. Parts per billion (ppb) - Used for trace quantities; masses are
known but molecular masses may be unknown.