This document provides an overview of research methodology. It defines research as a systematic process used to increase understanding through answering questions. The document outlines key aspects of research including: defining and describing research; differences between research and other activities; the process of research from question to interpretation; reliability and validity; and types of research designs. It emphasizes that research requires a scientific approach and should aim to improve understanding and inform practice.

1. Research methodology
Dr. Amjad Idries

2. What is research and why research?
Research Concepts

3. In the broadest sense of the word
•Research includes any gathering of data,
information and facts for the advancement of
knowledge.

4. Difference between:
• They say,
• It might be,
• I imaging,
• I think,
• I believe,
• I am sure.

9. Research defined and described as ….
“…systematic approach to obtaining and confirming new
and reliable knowledge”
– Systematic and orderly (following a series of steps)
– Purpose is new knowledge, which must be reliable
This is a general definition which applies to all disciplines
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10. 10
Research is a process of steps used to collect and
analyze information to increase our understanding of
a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: Pose a
question, collect data to answer the question, and
present an answer to the question.

11. Research is not
Accidental discovery :
1. Accidental discovery may occur in structured research process
2. Usually takes the form of a phenomenon not previously noticed
3. May lead to a structured research process to verify or
understand the observation
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12. Research is not … cont.
Data Collection
• an intermediate step to gain reliable knowledge
• collecting reliable data is part of the research process
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13. Research is not … cont.
Searching out published research results in libraries (or
the internet)
• This is an important early step of research
• The research process always includes synthesis and
analysis
• But, just reviewing of literature is not research (except
if it is systematic and structured).
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14. Research is…
1. Searching for explanation of events, phenomena,
relationships and causes
–What, how and why things occur
–Are there interactions?
2. A process
– Planned and managed – to make the information generated
credible
– The process is creative
– It is circular – always leads to more questions
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15. •All well designed and conducted research has potential
application.
•Failure to see applications can be due to:
–Users not trained or experienced in the specialized methods of
research and reasoning
–Researchers often do not provide adequate interpretations and
guidance on applications of the research
• Researchers are responsible to help users understand
research implications (How?)
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16. •Researchers from different disciplines have their own ways
of viewing ‘their world’.

17. • This world view influences the different approaches that a
researcher may take to further understanding.
• These differing perspectives will, in turn, influence the questions
that researchers would pose and the methods that they would use
in their research.

18. • These perspectives would lead them to develop distinct research agendas
to further their knowledge and understanding.
• Researchers from the different disciplines would then have their own
methodological approaches, or research tools, that they would employ to
answer these questions.
• Different ways of viewing phenomena are often complementary. Thus, in
addressing many issues in pharmacy practice and health service research,
a range of researchers from different disciplines and backgrounds may be
involved.

19. For your own research, you may like to broaden this
to reflect on the following:
• Your ‘world view’ and underlying perspectives and assumptions
regarding the nature of your research topic and the type of
knowledge that will further your understanding.
• How these may lead to the formulation of your research question
(identification of research priorities).
• What has informed your choice of methods for your study (methodology).

20. The Process of Research
• The process is initiated with a question or problem (step 1)
• Next, goals and objectives are formulated to deal with the question or
problem (step 2)
• Then the research design is developed to achieve the objectives (step 3)
• Results are generated by conducting the research (step 4)
• Interpretation and analysis of results follow (step 5)
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21. 21
1
2
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The Process of Research

22. Literature review
• literature review is conducted in a given subject area before
a research question is identified. A gap in the current
literature, as identified by a researcher, then engenders a
research question.

23. Creativity in the Research Process
• Research is a creative process
• “…research includes far more than mere logic … It includes insight, genius,
groping, pondering – ‘sense’ … The logic we can teach; the art we cannot”
• Research requires (or at least works best) with imagination, initiative,
intuition, and curiosity.
• There are different types of creativity, characteristic of different situations
– “applied” and “theoretical” most closely associate with economic
research
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24. Fostering Creativity
A. Look at things alternate ways
B. Allow curiosity to grow
C. Set problems aside … and come back to them
J. Write down your thoughts
“… frequently I don’t know what I think until I write it”
K. Freedom from distraction … some time to think
L. Question or challenge assumptions.
M. Search for patterns or relationships
N. Take risks
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Creativity may
provide the
difference
between
satisfactory and
outstanding
research

25. The concepts of reliability and validity are
pertinent to all studies and at different stages
of the research.

26. Reliability
• Reliability refers to the extent to which procedures, measures and
data are reproducible or internally consistent.
• Problems of reliability may arise in relation to repeated measures
on a piece of diagnostic equipment, uniformity between researchers
in the collection of data, adherence of interviewers to an interview
schedule, completeness in maintaining records of non-responders,
care and attentiveness when observing events, consistency of
questions in a questionnaire, agreement between researchers in the
coding of data, etc.

27. Validity
• Validity refers to the extent to which the findings of a study are a true
reflection of phenomena under study.
• Do the instruments (e.g. questions in an interview, records maintained by an
observer) actually measure what they are designed to measure?
• Potential problems in validity arise, in particular, in relation to data collection
and the development of instruments.

28. Generalisability (external validity)
• The generalisability is concerned with the extent to which the findings of a
study can be applied to individuals beyond the sample. Many studies involve
samples rather than a whole population.

29. What is a scientific approach?

30. 1. What are the expectations from your side as student?
2. What is a scientific approach?

31. In your methodology you need to justify your approach
and methods in terms of their scientific basis

32. The ultimate goal of research
•The ultimate goal of research is to improve our
understanding of professional practice and medicines use, to
inform the development of services to meet health and
pharmaceutical care needs of patients and the public.

33. Understand first, then apply
Possessing a conceptual understanding that enables you to:
1. Critically evaluate current research and advanced scholarship, and
2. Evaluate and critique relevant methodologies.
3. Use this knowledge to select and apply techniques applicable to your own
research.
4. Demonstrate an understanding of how established techniques of research
contribute to the development of a discipline and its application

34. • Applied research, by its very nature, is often designed to achieve
pragmatic rather than theoretical goals.
• It is important to demonstrate how the work is underpinned by a
scientific approach, which may, or may not, be germane to a
particular discipline, and that the findings of the research are clear
and dependable.

35. At the university real-life studies have not yet
gained a similar status as the work in the lab.
natural science education at university

36. •The difference between
•……………….positivism, in which the real world is ‘out there’
and can be described…………………….
•…………….. and constructionism in which we all construct
the real world ourselves mainly through the attribution of
meaning.

37. • There is something very uncomfortable, maybe even schizophrenic,
about the characteristics of researching pharmacists.
• Within pharmaceutical science there are two main approaches for
research: in the laboratory and in the field.
• The first approach relates to natural science, and the second
approach relates to social science.

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Disciplinary, Subject-matter, and Problem-solving Research

39. From the lab to the field
• Important part of the work within pharmaceutical science is performed
in laboratories.
• Interesting characteristic of research performed in a laboratory is that
the objects being studied are isolated from the outside world.
• Elimination of environmental influences is vital in a laboratory setting.
• In field research it not possible to ignore how the environment influences
the objects.

40. •A keen interest in the chosen subject area is advisable.
•The research will have to be justified by linking its
importance to already existing knowledge about the topic.

41. What do you think?
•A community pharmacy may be regarded as,
- a drug-delivery shop?
- a business?
- an information shop?
- a working place?
- an expertise centre for medication?
- a social place?
- or all possible combinations of such perspectives.

42. What do you think?
•Where you should do your research and why?

43. Scientific appraisals tends to focus exclusively on methodology and methods!

44. Logical thinking
Why this study?

45. Subject-matter research
“research on a subject of interest to a set of decision makers “
• Tends to follow subject-matter boundaries within a discipline.
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46. Problem-solving research
• Designed to solve a specific problem for a specific decision maker, and
Often results in recommendations on decisions or actions.
• Problem-solving research is holistic – uses all information relevant to the
specific problem, while disciplinary research tends to be reductionist.
• Disciplinary research is generally the most “durable” (long lasting);
problem-solving research the least durable.
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47. Analytic vs Descriptive Research
• Descriptive Research – the attempt to determine, describe, or identify
something
• The intent is often synthesis, which pulls knowledge or information together
• Analytic – the attempt to establish why something occurs or how it came to
be
• All disciplines generally engage in both
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48. •Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates
the relationship between two or more variables.

49. •Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by
relating it to other concepts.

50. •Operational definition: Details in regards to defining
the variables and how they will be measured/assessed
in the study.

52. Problem—Obstacle—Idea
Hypothesis or theory development
Observation—Test—Experiment

53. • In terms of design, studies may be descriptive or experimental. Examples of
quantitative studies may be:
1. Assessments of the frequencies of events.
2. Establishing the proportion of people in a population/sample who hold
particular views or attitudes.
3. Audits of professional practice and use of medicines, requiring assessment
against set criteria.
4. Assessment of rates of adherence among particular populations.

54. 5. The timing, duration and resources associated with activities.
6. A comparison of prescribing patterns and rates between hospitals.
7. Examination of associations between variables in a dataset, e.g. number of
medicines prescribed and reports of medication-related problems, or
attitudes and population characteristics or experiences.
8. Randomized controlled trials in which differences in outcomes between
groups are measured and compared.
9. Studies that involve the application of statistical procedures.