Exam 1 study guide 9.06.2014

Hollingsworth Biology Exam 1 Study Guide 09/06/2014
Chapter 1
Biology
Biological Literacy
Superstitions
Scientific discipline
What does empirical mean?
Can scientists change their minds?
Steps of the scientific method
Observations
Hypotheses
Predictions
Theories
Laws
Placebo
Echinacea example
Experiment
Testable
Scientific theory (and how it differs from the common use of the word theory
Controlled experiments
Double-blind study
Treatment group v. Control Group
Why do scientists use statistics?
Anecdotal evidence
What is pseudoscience?
Branches of science
Systems of nature
What cannot be answered using the scientific method?
Chapter 2
Element
Atom
Protons
Neutrons
Electrons
Nucleus
How many different elements are found in your body?
Atomic number
Atomic mass
Four most abundant elements in the human body
Ion
Ionic bond
Covalent bond

Hydrogen bond
Molecules
Why do certain chemicals have certain tastes?
Importance of water
Coastal climates v. Inland climates
pH
Acidity
Base/alkalinity
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
Monosaccharides
Insoluble fiber
Hydrocarbons
Cell membranes
DNA sequences
DNA – RNA
Nucleotides
Chapter 3
Plant cell
Animal cell
Similarities and differences
Cell organelles (names and general functions)
Cell wall, cell membrane, plasma membrane
Prokaryotic
Eukaryotic
Cell theory
Youtube Videos – watch them again! Review your notes. Re-write your notes. Study! Focus!
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCERU5ulJjCLZSwlRPZ7kgYw
Here is a general outline of the three chapters in unit one, which will be on the first exam. If you
are looking for the concepts, this will help you look!
Chapter 1
Scientific Thinking
Chapter Outline

1 Science is a collection of facts and a process for
understanding the world.
1.1 What is science? What is biology?
SECTION 1.1: Through its emphasis on objective observation, description, and experimentation,
science is a pathway by which we can discover and better understand the world around us.
1.2 Biological literacy is essential in the modern world.
SECTION 1.2: Biological issues permeate all aspects of our lives. To make wise decisions, it is
essential for individuals and societies to attain biological literacy.
1.3 The scientific method is a powerful approach to understanding the world.
SECTION 1.3: There are numerous ways of gaining an understanding of the world. Because it is
empirical, rational, testable, repeatable, and self-correcting, the scientific method is a particularly
effective approach.
2 A beginner’s guide: what are the steps of the scientific
method?
1.4 Thinking like a scientist: how do you use the scientific method?
SECTION 1.4: The scientific method (observation, hypothesis, prediction, test, and conclusion) is
a flexible, adaptable, and efficient pathway to understanding the world, because it tells us when
we must change our beliefs.
1.5 Step 1: Make observations.
SECTION 1.5: The scientific method begins by making observations about the world, noting
apparent patterns or cause-and-effect relationships.
1.6 Step 2: Formulate a hypothesis.
SECTION 1.6: A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for an observed phenomenon.
1.7 Step 3: Devise a testable prediction.
SECTION 1.7: For a hypothesis to be useful, it must generate a testable hypothesis.
1.8 Step 4: Conduct a critical experiment.
SECTION 1.8: A critical experiment is one that makes it possible to decisively determine whether
a particular hypothesis is correct.

1.9 Step 5: Draw conclusions, make revisions.
SECTION 1.9: Based on the results of experimental tests, we can revise a hypothesis and explain
the observable world with increasing accuracy. A great strength of scientific thinking, therefore,
is that it helps us understand when we should change our minds.
1.10 When do hypotheses become theories, and what are theories?
SECTION 1.10: Scientific theories do not represent speculation or guesses about the natural world.
Rather, they are hypotheses—proposed explanations for natural phenomena—that have been so
strongly and persuasively supported by empirical observation that the scientific community views
them as very unlikely to be altered by new evidence.
3 Well-designed experiments are essential to testing
hypotheses.
1.11 Controlling variables makes experiments more powerful.
SECTION 1.11: To draw clear conclusions from experiments, it is essential to hold constant all
those variables we are not interested in. Control and experimental groups should differ only
with respect to the treatment of interest. Differences in outcomes between the groups can then
be attributed to the treatment.
1.12 Repeatable experiments increase our confidence.
SECTION 1.12: Experiments and their outcomes must be repeatable for their conclusions to be
considered valid and widely accepted.
1.13 We’ve got to watch out for our biases.
SECTION 1.13: Biases can influence our behavior, including our collection and interpretation of
data. With careful controls, it is possible to minimize such biases.
4 The scientific method can help us make wise decisions.
1.14 Visual displays of data can help us understand and explain phenomena.
SECTION 1.14: Visual displays of data, which condense large amounts
of information, can aid in the presentation and exploration of the data. The effectiveness
of such displays is influenced by the precision and clarity of the presentation, and it can be
reduced by ambiguity, biases, hidden assumptions, and other issues that reduce a viewer’s
confidence in the underlying truth of the presented phenomenon.
1.15 Statistics can help us in making decisions.

SECTION 1.15: Because much variation exists in the world, statistics
can help us evaluate whether any differences between a treatment group and a control group
can be attributed to the treatment rather than random chance.
1.16 Pseudoscience and misleading anecdotal evidence can obscure the truth.
SECTION 1.16: Pseudoscience and anecdotal observations often lead
people to believe that links between two phenomena exist, when in fact there are no such
links.
1.17 There are limits to what science can do.
SECTION 1.17: Although the scientific method may be the most
effective path toward understanding the observable world, it cannot give us insights into
the generation of value judgments and other types of non-quantifiable, subjective
information.
5 On the road to biological literacy: what are the major themes
in biology?
1.18 A few important themes tie together the diverse topics in biology.
SECTION 1.18: Although the diversity of life on earth is tremendous, the study of life is unified by
the themes of hierarchical organization and the power of evolution.
Chapter 2
Chemistry
Chapter Outline
1 Atoms form molecules through bonding.
2.1 Everything is made of atoms.
SECTION 2.1: Everything around us, living or not, is made up of atoms, the smallest units into
which material can be divided without losing its essential properties. All atoms have the same
general structure. They are made up of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, and electrons, which
circle far and fast around the nucleus.
2.2 An atom’s electrons determine how (and whether) the atom will bond with other atoms.

SECTION 2.2: The chemical characteristics of an atom depend on the number of electrons in its
outermost shell. Atoms are most stable and least likely to bond with other atoms when their
outermost electron shell is filled to capacity.
2.3 Atoms can bond together to form molecules or compounds.
SECTION 2.3: Atoms can be bound together in three different ways. Covalent bonds occur when
atoms share electrons. In ionic bonds, one atom transfers its electrons to another and the two
oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other, forming a compound. Hydrogen bonds, which
are weaker than covalent and ionic bonds, involve the attraction between a hydrogen atom and
a polar molecule.
2 Water has features that enable it to support all life.
2.4 Hydrogen bonds make water cohesive.
SECTION 2.4: Water molecules easily form hydrogen bonds, giving water great cohesiveness.
2.5 Water has unusual properties that make it critical to life.
SECTION 2.5: The hydrogen bonds between water molecules give water several of its most
important characteristics, including cohesiveness, reduced density as a solid, the ability to resist
temperature changes, and broad effectiveness as a solvent for ionic and polar substances.
2.6 Living systems are highly sensitive to acidic and basic conditions.
SECTION 2.6: The pH of a fluid is a measure of how acidic or basic the solution is and depends on
the concentration of dissolved H+ ions present. Acids, such as vinegar, can donate protons to other
chemicals; bases, including baking soda, bind with free protons.
3 Carbohydrates are fuel for living machines.
2.7 Carbohydrates include macromolecules that function as fuel.
SECTION 2.7: Carbohydrates are the primary fuel for running all cellular machinery and also form
much of the structure of cells in all life forms. Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, and generally have the same number of carbon atoms as they do H2O units. The simplest
carbohydrates, including glucose, are monosaccharides or simple sugars. They contain from three
to six carbon atoms. As the chemical bonds of carbohydrates are broken down and other more
stable bonds are formed, a great deal of energy is released that can be used by organisms.
2.8 Glucose provides energy for the body’s cells.
SECTION 2.8: Glucose is the most important carbohydrate to living organisms. Glucose in the
bloodstream can be used as an energy source, can be stored as glycogen in the muscles and liver
for later use, or can be converted to fat.

2.9 Many complex carbohydrates are time-released packets of energy.
SECTION 2.9: Multiple simple carbohydrates are sometimes linked together into more complex
carbohydrates. Types of complex carbohydrates include starch, which is the primary form of
energy storage in plants, and glycogen, which is a primary form of energy storage in animals.
2.10 Not all carbohydrates are digestible.
SECTION 2.10: Some complex carbohydrates, including chitin and cellulose, cannot be digested
by most animals. Such indigestible carbohydrates in the diet, called fiber, aid in digestion and have
many health benefits.
4 Lipids store energy for a rainy day.
2.11 Lipids are macromolecules with several functions, including energy storage.
SECTION 2.11: Lipids are insoluble in water and greasy to the touch. They are valuable to
organisms for long-term energy storage and insulation, in membrane formation, and as
hormones.
2.12 Fats are tasty molecules too plentiful in our diets.
SECTION 2.12: Fats, including the triglycerides common in the food we eat, are one type of lipid.
Characterized by long hydrocarbon tails, fats effectively store energy in the many carbon-hydrogen
and carbon-carbon bonds. Their caloric density is responsible for humans’ preferring
fats to other macromolecules in the diet, and is also responsible for their association with obesity
and illness in the modern world.
2.13 Cholesterol and phospholipids are used to build sex hormones and membranes.
SECTION 2.13: Cholesterol and phospholipids are lipids that are not fats. Both are important
components in cell membranes. Cholesterol also serves as a precursor to steroid hormones,
important regulators of growth and development.
5 Proteins are versatile macromolecules that serve as
building blocks.
2.14 Proteins are bodybuilding macromolecules.
SECTION 2.14: Unique combinations of 20 amino acids give rise to proteins, the chief building
blocks of the physical structures that make up all organisms. Proteins perform myriad functions,
from assisting chemical reactions to causing blood clotting to building bones to fighting
microorganisms.

2.15 Proteins are an essential dietary component.
SECTION 2.15: Twenty amino acids make up all the proteins necessary for growth, repair, and
replacement of tissue in living organisms. Of these amino acids, about half are esse ntial for
humans: they cannot be synthesized by the body so must be consumed in the diet. Complete
proteins contain all essential amino acids, while incomplete proteins do not.
2.16 A protein’s function is influenced by its three -dimensional shape.
SECTION 2.16: The particular amino acid sequence of a protein determines how it folds into a
particular three-dimensional shape. This shape determines many of the protein’s features, such
as the molecules it will interact with. When a protein’s shape is deformed, the protein usually
loses its ability to function.
2.17 Enzymes are proteins that initiate and speed up chemical reactions.
SECTION 2.17: Enzymes are proteins that help initiate and speed up chemical reactions. They
aren’t permanently altered in the process, but rather can be used again and again.
2.18 Enzymes regulate reactions in several ways (but malformed enzymes can cause
problems).
SECTION 2.18: Enzyme activity is influenced by physical factors such as temperature and pH, as
well as chemical factors, including enzyme and substrate concentrations. Inhibitors and activators
are chemicals that bind to enzymes and by blocking the active site or altering the shape or
structure of the enzyme can change the rate at which the enzyme catalyzes reactions.
6 Nucleic acids store the information on how to build and
run a body.
2.19 Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store information.
SECTION 2.19: The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are macromolecules that store information in their
unique sequences of bases contained in nucleotides, their building-block molecules. Both nucleic
acids play central roles in directing protein production in organisms.
2.20 DNA holds the genetic information to build an organism.
SECTION 2.20: DNA is like a ladder in which the long vertical sides of the ladder are made from a
sequence of sugar-phosphate-sugar-phosphate molecules and the rungs are pairs of nucleotide
bases. The sequence of nucleotide bases contains the information about how to produce a
particular protein.

2.21 RNA is a universal translator, reading DNA and directing protein production.
SECTION 2.21: RNA acts as a middleman molecule—taking the instructions for protein production
from DNA to another part of the cell where, in accordance with the RNA instructions, amino acids
are pieced together into proteins.
Chapter 3
Cells
Chapter Outline
1 What is a cell?
3.1 All organisms are made of cells.
SECTION 3.1: The most basic unit of any organism is the cell, the smallest unit of life that can
function independently and perform all of the necessary functions of life, including reproducing
itself. All living organisms are made up of one or more cells, and all cell s arise from other, pre-existing
cells.
3.2 Prokaryotic cells are structurally simple, but there are many types of them.
SECTION 3.2: Every cell on earth is either a eukaryotic or a prokaryotic cell. Prokaryotes, which
have no nucleus, were the first cells on earth. They are all single-celled organisms. Prokaryotes
include the bacteria and archaea and, as a group, are characterized by tremendous metabolic
diversity.
3.3 Eukaryotic cells have compartments with specialized functions.
SECTION 3.3: Eukaryotes are single-celled or multicellular organisms consisting of cells with a
nucleus that contains linear strands of genetic material. The cells also commonly have organelles
throughout their cytoplasm; these organelles may have originated evolutionarily through
endosymbiosis or invagination, or both.
2 Cell membranes are gatekeepers.
3.4 Every cell is bordered by a plasma membrane.

SECTION 3.4: Every cell of every living organism is enclosed by a plasma membrane, a two-layered
membrane that holds the contents of a cell in place and regulates what enters and
leaves the cell.
3.5 Molecules embedded in the plasma membrane help it perform its functions.
SECTION 3.5: The plasma membrane is a fluid mosaic of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
Proteins found in the plasma membrane enable it to carry out most of its gatekeeping functions.
The proteins act as receptors, help molecules gain entry into and exit from the cell, and catalyze
reactions on the inner and outer cell surfaces. In conjunction with carbohydrates, some plasma
membrane proteins identify the cell to other cells. And, in addition to the phospholipids that
make up most of the plasma membrane, cholesterol is an important lipid in some membranes,
influencing fluidity.
3.6 Faulty membranes can cause disease.
SECTION 3.6: Normal cell functioning can be disrupted when cell membranes—particularly the
proteins embedded in them—do not function properly. Such malfunctions can cause health
problems, such as cystic fibrosis. But disruption of normal cell membrane function can also have
beneficial, therapeutic effects, such as in the treatment of high blood pressure and anxiety.
3.7 Membrane surfaces have a “fingerprint” that identifies the cell.
SECTION 3.7: Every cell in your body has a “fingerprint” made from a variety of molecules on the
outside-facing surface of the cell membrane. This molecular fingerprint is key to the function of
your immune system.
3 Molecules move across membranes in several ways.
3.8 Passive transport is the spontaneous diffusion of molecules across a membrane.
SECTION 3.8: For proper functioning, cells must acquire food molecules and/or other necessary
materials from outside the cell. Similarly, metabolic waste molecules and molecules produced
for use elsewhere in the body must move out of the cell. In passive transport—which includes
simple and facilitated diffusion and osmosis—the molecular movement occurs spontaneously,
without the input of energy. This generally occurs as molecules move down their concentration
gradient.
3.9 Osmosis is the passive diffusion of water across a membrane.
SECTION 3.9: The diffusion of water across a membrane is a special type of passive transport
called osmosis. Water molecules move across the membrane until the concentration of water
inside and outside the cell is equalized.
3.10 In active transport, cells use energy to move small molecules into and out of the cell.

SECTION 3.10: In active transport, moving molecules across a membrane requires energy. Active
transport is necessary if the molecules to be moved are very large or if they are being moved
against their concentration gradient. Proteins embedded in the plasma membrane act like
motorized revolving doors to actively transport (pump) the molecules.
3.11 Endocytosis and exocytosis are used for bulk transport of particles.
SECTION 3.11: When materials cannot get into a cell via diffusion or a pump (e.g., when the
molecules are too big), cells can engulf the molecules or particles with their plasma membrane
in a process called endocytosis. Similarly, molecules can be moved out of a cell via exocytosis. In
both processes, the plasma membrane moves to surround the molecules or particles and forms
a little vesicle that is pinched off inside the cell (endocytosis) or fuses with the plasma
membrane and dumps its contents outside the cell (exocytosis).
4 Cells are connected and communicate with each other.
3.12 Connections between cells hold them in place and enable them to communicate with each
other.
SECTION 3.12: In multicellular organisms, most cells are connected to other cells. The
connections can form a water-tight seal between the cells (tight junctions), can hold sheets of
cells together while allowing fluid to pass between the cell (desmosomes), or can function like
secret passageways, allowing the movement of cytoplasm, molecules, and other signals
between cells (gap junctions).
5 Nine important landmarks distinguish eukaryotic cells.
3.13 The nucleus is the cell’s genetic control center.
SECTION 3.13: The nucleus is usually the largest and most prominent organelle in the eukaryotic
cell. It directs most cellular activities by controlling which molecules are produced and in what
quantity. The nucleus is also the storehouse for all hereditary information.
3.14 Cytoplasm and the cytoskeleton form the cell’s internal environment, provide its
physical support, and can generate movement.
SECTION 3.14: The inner scaffolding of the cell, which is made from proteins, is the
cytoskeleton. Consisting of three types of protein fibers—microtubules, intermediate filaments,
and microfilaments—the cytoskeleton gives animal cells their shape and support, gives cells
some ability to control their movement, and serves as a series of tracks on which organelles and
molecules are guided across and around the inside of the cell.
3.15 Mitochondria are the cell’s energy converters.
SECTION 3.15: In mitochondria, which are found in nearly all eukaryotic cells, the energy
contained in the chemical bonds of carbohydrate, fat, and protein molecules is converted into

carbon dioxide, water, and ATP, the energy source for all cellular functions and activities.
Mitochondria may have their evolutionary origins as symbiotic bacteria living inside other cells.
3.16 Lysosomes are the cell’s garbage disposals.
SECTION 3.16: Lysosomes are round, membrane-enclosed, acid-filled organelles that function as
a cell’s garbage disposals. They are filled with about 50 different digestive enzymes and enable a
cell to dismantle macromolecules, including disease-causing bacteria.
3.17 The endoplasmic reticulum is the site where cells build proteins and disarm toxins.
SECTION 3.17: The production and modification of biological molecules in eukaryotic cells
occurs in a system of organelles called the endomembrane system, which includes, among other
organelles, the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. In rough ER, proteins that will be
shipped elsewhere in the body are folded and packaged. In the smooth ER, lipids are synthesized
and alcohol, antibiotics, and other drugs are detoxified.
3.18 The Golgi apparatus is the site where the cell processes products for delivery
throughout the body.
SECTION 3.18: The Golgi apparatus—another organelle within the endomembrane system—
processes molecules synthesized in a cell and packages those that are destined for use
elsewhere in the body.
3.19 The cell wall provides additional protection and support for the plant cells.
SECTION 3.19: The cell wall is an organelle found in plants (and in some other non-animal
organisms). It is made primarily from the carbohydrate cellulose and it surrounds the plasma
membrane of the cell. The cell wall confers tremendous structural strength on plant cells, gi ves
plants increased resistance to water loss, and provides some protection from insects and other
animals that might eat them. In plants, plasmodesmata connect cells and enable communication
and transport between them.
3.20 Vacuoles are multipurpose storage sacs for cells.
SECTION 3.20: In plants, vacuoles can occupy most of the interior space of the cell. Vacuoles are
also present in some other eukaryotic species. They function as storage spaces and play a role in
nutrition, waste management, predator deterrence, reproduction, and physical support.
3.21 Chloroplasts are the plant cell’s power plant.
SECTION 3.21: The chloroplast is the organelle in plants and algae that is the site of
photosynthesis—the conversion of light energy into chemical energy, with oxygen as a by-product.
Chloroplasts may have originally been bacteria that were engulfed by a predatory cell
by endosymbiosis.

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