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1. A Selected Bibliography of
Typographical Research Relevant
to the Production of Instructional
MaterialsI
JAMES HARTLEY
SUSAN FRASER
PETER BURNHILL
In preparing this bibliography of research in typography
relevant to the design of instructional materials we have
tried to be comprehensive, but in a limited way. We have
tried to make the coverage broad, but to select within differ-
ent areas only those papers that have comprehensive refer-
ence lists, or that have been recently published and thus are
not included in other bibliographies. For a complete overview
of the field, readers are especially referred to Herbert Spencer's
(1969) The Visible Word which has a bibliography contain-
ing over 400 entries.
In this bibliography we have divided the material as
follows:
1The authors express appreciation to friends and colleagues who com-
mented on an earlier version of this bibliography, and to the Social
Science Research Council who financed its preparation.
]ames Hartley is senior lecturer in psychology and Susan Fraser is research
assistant in the Department of Psychology, The University of Keele, Staf-
fordshire, England. Peter Burnhill is head of the Design Department, Staf-
ford College of Further Education, England.
AVCR VOL. 22, No. 2, SUMMER 1974 181

2. AV COMMUNICATION REVIEW 1974 SUMMER : 182
1. Basic texts
2. General overview chapters or papers
3. Bibliographies
4. Research Issues:
a. Type-styles, faces, weights, etc.
b. Typesize, line length, and interline space
c. Colored papers and inks
d. Unjustified composition
e. Single-column versus two-, three-columns
f. Organization of space
g. Headings, subheadings, underlining, etc.
h. The effects of questions and tests
i. Illustrations
j. Tables, diagrams, and graphs
k. Algorithms
1. Instructional symbols
m. Instructional leaflets, guides, etc.
n. Computer-assisted instruction and displays
o. Special needs
5. Measurement and methodological problems
6. Standards and print production
Most of these headings we think are self-explanatory, but
with work of this kind, there has been a problem with papers
that fit into two or more categories. Occasionally, when this
has happened, we have repeated the reference.
The section on measurement and methodological problems
perhaps needs further explanation. In this section, we have
tried to indicate a general problem area by choosing a paper
illustrating it. Thus there are problems with different kinds of
measures (e.g., reader preferences, reading speed, comprehen-
sion, physiological measures), their reliability and validity,
and there are general problems of experimental design (e.g.,
see the papers by Poulton).
Finally we have concentrated on material useful for educa-
tion and training: we have only indirectly touched on mate-
rial relevant to manufacturing, operating, maintenance,
servicing instructions, etc.

3. BIBLIOGRAPHYOFTYPOGRAPHICALRESEARCH : 183
1. BASICTEXTS
2. GENERAL
OVERVIEW
CHAPTERS/
PAPERS
3. BIBLI-
OGRAPHIES
4. RESEARCH
ISSUES
(a) Type-Styles,
Faces, Weights,
etc.
Spencer, H. The Visible Word. London: Lund Humphries, 1969.
Tinker, M. A. Legibility of Print. (2nd ed.) Ames: Iowa State
University Press, 1964.
Zachrisson, B. Legibility of Printed Text. Stockholm: Almqvist and
Wiksell; 1965.
Foster, J. J. Legibility research-the ergonomics of print. [cographic,
1973, 6, 20-24.
Gilliland, J. Readability. London: University Press, 1972. Part 2.
Poulton, E. C. How efficient is print? In I. K. Davies, & J. Hartley,
(Eds). Contributions to an Educational Technology. London:
Butterworths, 1972.
Smith, K. U. & Smith, M. F. Cybernetic Principles of Learning and
Educational Design. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1966. Chapter 13, Text book design.
Tinker, M. A. Bases for Effective Reading. Minneapolis: University
of Minnesota Press, 1965. Part Ill.
Cornog, D. Y. & Rose, F. C. Legibility of Alphanumeric Characters
and Other Symbols, II. A Reference Handbook. U.S. Depart-
ment of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards. Miscella-
neous Publication 262-2, 1967.
Foster, J. J. (Ed). Legibility Research Abstracts 1970. London: Lund
Humphries, 1971.
Foster, J. J. (Ed). Legibility Research Abstracts 1971. London: Lund
Humphries, 1973.
MacDonald-Ross, M. & Smith, E. B. Bibliography of textual com-
munication. Monograph No. 3. Institute of Educational Tech-
nology: The Open University, Milton Keynes, U.K., 1973.
Parker, J. H. A Select Annotated Bibliography on Textbooks in
Education. Keele University Library, Occasional Publications,
No. 9. Keele, U.K., 1972.
Tinker, M. A. Experimental studies on the legibility of print--an
annotated bibliography. Reading Research Quarterly, 1966, 1(4),
68-118.
Poulton, E. C. How efficient is print? In I. K. Davies & J. Hartley
(Eds)., Contributions to an Educational Technology. London:
Butterworths, 1972.
Robinson, D. O., Abbamonte, M. & Evans, S. H. Why serifs are
important: The perception of small print. Visible Language,
1971, 5(4), 353-359.
Spencer, H., Reynolds, L. & Coe, B. A comparison of the effective-
ness of selected typographic variations. Readability of Print
Research Unit, Royal College of Art, Kensington Gore, London,
1973.
Spencer, H., Reynolds, L. & Coe, B. A report on the relative legibil-
ity of alternative letter faces. Readability of Print Research Unit,
Royal College of Art, Kensington Gore, London, 1973.

4. AVCOMMUNICATIONREVIEW1974SUMMER : 184
Tinker, M. A. Bases for Effective Reading. Minneapolis: University
of Minnesota Press, 1965. Pp. 136-138; 177-180.
(b) Typesize, Line
Length and
Interline Space
(c) Colored Papers
and Inks
(d) Unjustified
Composition
(e) Single-Column
Versus Two-,
Three-Columns
Burt, C. A Psychological Study of Typography. Cambridge, U.K.:
University Press, 1959.
Burt, C. The typography of children's books. Yearbook of Educa-
tion, Institute of Education, London University, 1960, 242-256.
Poulton, E. C., Warren, T. R. & Bond, J. Ergonomics in journal
design. Applied Ergonomics, 1970, 1(4), 207-209.
Robinson, D. O., Abbamonte, M. & Evans, S. H. Why serifs are
important; the perception of small print. Visible Language,
1971, V(4),353-359.
Tinker, M. A. Print for children's textbooks. Education, 1959, 80(1),
37-40.
Wiggins, R. H. Effects of three typographical variables on speed of
reading. Journal of Typographic Research, 1967, 1, 5-18.
Dwyer, F. M. Color as an instructional variable. AV Communica-
tion Review, 1971, I9(4), 399-416.
Konz, S., Chanla, S., Sathaye, S. & Shah, P. Attractiveness and
legibility of various colours when printed on cardboard.
Ergonomics, 1972, 15(2), 189-194.
Tinker, M. A. Bases for Effective Reading. Minneapolis: University
of Minnesota Press, 1965. Chapter 13, Color and surfaces of
printing paper.
Carver, R. P. The effect of "chunked" typography on reading rate
and comprehension. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1970,
54(3), 288-296.
Gregory, M. & Poulton, E. C. Even versus uneven right-hand
margins and rate of comprehension in reading. Ergonomics,
1970, I3(4), 427-434.
Hartley, J. & Burnhill, P. Experiments with unjustified text. Visible
Language, 1971, V(3),265-278.
Hartley, J. & Mills, R. L. Unjustified experiments in typographical
research and instructional design. British Journal of Educational
Technology, 1973, 4(2), 120-131.
Foster, J. J. A study of the legibility of one and two-column layouts
for B.P.S. publications. Bulletin of the British Psychological
Society, 1970, 23, 113-114.
Hartley, J., Burnhill, P'. & Fraser, S. Typographical problems of
journal design. Applied Ergonomics, 1974, 5(1), 15-20.
Poulton, E. C. Effects of printing types and formats on the compre-
hension of scientific journals. M.R.C. Applied Psychology Unit
Report No. 346. Cambridge, U.K. 1959.
Poulton, E. C., Warren, T. R. & Bond, J. Ergonomics in journal
design. Applied Ergonomics, 1970, I(4), 207-209.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHYOFTYPOGRAPHICALRESEARCH : 185
(f) Organization
of Space
(g) Headings,
Subheadings,
Underlining, etc.
(h) The Effects of
Questions and
Tests
(i) Illustrations
Burnhill, P. Typographic education: Headings in text. Journal of
Typographic Research, 1970, 4(4), 353-365.
Conrad, R. The design of information. Occupational Psychology,
1962, 36(3), 159-162.
Hartley, J., Burnhill, P. & Fraser, S. Typography, communication
and learning. In The Visual Presentation of Technical Data,
Typography Unit, University of Reading, U.K., 1973.
Horn, R. E., Nichol, E. H. & Kleiman, J. C. Information mapping
for learning and reference. Electronic Systems Division, Air
Force Systems Command, U.S.A.F., Bedford, Massachusetts,
1969. ESD-TR-69-296.
Cashen, V. M. & Leicht, K. L. Role of the isolation effect (under-
lining) in a formal setting. American Psychological Association
Experimental Publication System, 1970, 7, 240-44.
Christensen, C. M. & Stordahl, K. E. The effect of organizational
aids on comprehension and retention. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 1955, 46(2), 65-74.
Dearborn, W. F., Johnston, P. W. & Carmichael, L. Oral stress and
meaning in printed material. Science, 1949, II0, 404.
Hershberger, W. A. Self-evaluational reading and typographical
cueing; techniques for programming self-instructional reading
materials. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1964, 55, 288-
296.
Hershberger, W. A. Typographical cueing in conventional and
programmed texts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1965,
49(1), 55-60.
Wendt, D. & Werckerle, H. On effects of indentation and under-
lining in reference work. Visible Language, 1972, V/(2), 167-71.
Bull, S. The role of questions in maintaining attention to textual
material. Review of Educational Research, 1973, 43(1), 83-87.
Glaser, R. & Resnick, L. B. Instructional psychology. Annual Re-
view of Psychology, 1972, 23, 207-276.
Hartley, J. The effect of pre-testing on post-test performance.
Instructional Science, 1973, 2, 193-214.
Ladas, H. The mathemagenic effects of factual review questions on
the learning of incidental information: A critical review. Review
of Educational Research, 1973, 43(1), 71-82.
Morasky, R. M. Eyemovements as a function of adjunct question
placement. American Educational Research Journal, 1972, 9,
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Dwyer, F. M. A Guide for Improving Visualized Instruction.
Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA: Learning
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Dwyer, F. M. Exploratory studies in the effectiveness of visual
illustrations. AV Communication Review, 1970, 18(3), 235-240.

6. AVCOMMUNICATIONREVIEW1974SUMMER : 186
Fleming, M. L. Perceptual principles for the design of instructional
materials. Viewpoints, Bulletin of the School of Education,
Indiana University, 46, No. 4, 69-200.
Fleming, M. L. Classification and analysis of instructional illustra-
tions. A V Communication Review, 1967, 15, 246-256.
Gropper, G. L. The design of stimulus materials in response-
oriented programs. AV Communication Review, 1970, 18(2),
129-159.
Holliday, W. Critical analysis of pictorial research related to science
education. Science Education, 1973, 57(2), 201-214.
Koenke, K. & Otto, W. Contribution of pictures to children's com-
prehension of the main idea in reading. Psychology in the
Schools, 1969, 6(3), 298-302.
Levie, W. H. & Dickie, K. E. The analysis and application of media.
In R. M. W. Travers (Ed.), Second Handbook of Research on
Teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1973.
Myrick, R. D., Anthony, J. T. & Haldin, W. The student handbook
as an aid in orientation: A comparative study. The School
Counsellor, 1970, I8(1), 61-65.
Smith, J. & Watkins, H. An Investigation into Some Aspects of the
Illustration of Primary School Textbooks. Typography Unit,
University of Reading, U.K., 1972.
Smith, K. U. The scientific principles of textbook design and illus-
tration. AV Communication Review, 1960, 8, 31-46.
Strang, H. Pictorial and verbal media in self-instructional procedural
skills. A V Communication Review, 1973, 21,225-232.
Travers, R. M. W. & Alvarado, V. The design of pictures for teach-
ing children in elementary school. AV Communication Review,
1970, 18(1), 47-64.
Vernon, M. D. The instruction of children by pictorial illustration.
BritishJournal of EducationalPsychology, 1954, 24, 171-179.
(j) Tables,
Diagrams and
Graphs
Carter, L. F. An experiment on the design of tables and graphs used
for presenting numerical data. Journal of Applied Psychology,
1947, 31, 640-650.
Culbertson, H. M. & Powers, R. D. A study of graph comprehen-
sion difficulties. AV Communication Review, 1959, 7, 97-110.
Feliciano, G. D., Powers, R. D. & Kearl, B. E. The presentation of
statistical information. AV Communication Review, 1963, II(3),
32-39.
Frase, L. T. Tabular and diagrammatic presentation of verbal
materials. Perceptualand Motor Skills, 1969, 29, 320-322.
Lockwood, A. Diagrams. London: Studio Vista, 1969.
Martuza, V. R. & Wolfe, M. L. Effects of the amount of informa-
tion, organization of information and study time on the proc-
essing of quantitative information presented in graphical form.
Available from the authors. College of Education, University of
Delaware, Newark, Delaware. 1973.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHYOFTYPOGRAPHICALRESEARCH : 187
(k) Algorithms
(l) Instructional
Symbols
Peterson, L. V. & Schramm, W. How accurately are different kinds
of graphs read? AV Communication Review, 1955, 2(2), 178-
189.
Schutz, H. G. An evaluation of formats for graphic trend displays-
Experiment II. Human Factors,1961, 99-107.
Schutz, H. G. An evaluation of methods for presentation of graphic
multiple trends-Experiment III. Human Factors, 1961, 108-
119.
Tinker, M. A. Legibility of mathematical tables. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 1960, 44, 83-87.
Vernon, M. D. Presenting information in diagrams. AV Communi-
cation Review, 1953, 1,147-158.
Washburne, J. N. An experimental study of various graphic, tabu-
lar, and textural methods of presenting quantitative material.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 1927, 18, 361-376, 465-
476.
Wright, P. Using tabulated information. Ergonomics, 1968, 11(4),
331-343.
Wright, P. & Fox, K. Presenting information in tables. Applied
Ergonomics, 1970, I(4), 234-242.
Wright, P. & Fox, K. Explicit and implicit tabulation formats.
Ergonomics, 1972, 15(2), 175-187.
Davies, I. K. Competency Based Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1972. Ch. 9.
Gane, C. D., Horabin, I. S. & Lewis, B. N. The simplification and
avoidance of instruction. In I. K. Davies & J. Hartley, (Eds).
Contributions to an Educational Technology. London: Butter-
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Jones, S. Design of Instruction. London: H.M.S.O. Training Infor-
mation Paper No. 1, 1968.
Lewis, B. N. & Woolfenden, P. J. Algorithms and Logical Trees: A
Self-lnstructional Course. Cambridge U.K.: Algorithms Press,
1969.
Wheatley, D. M. & Unwin, A. W. The Algorithm Writer's Guide.
London: Longmans, 1972.
Wright, P. & Reid, F. Some alternatives to prose for expressing the
outcomes of complex contingencies. Journal of Applied Psy-
chology, 1973, 57(2), 160-166.
Easterby, R. S. The grammar of symbols. Print, 1969, 13, 6.
Easterby, R. S. The perception of symbols for machine displays.
Ergonomics, 1970, 13(1), 149-158.
Lees, J. & Farman, M. An investigation of the design and per-
formance of traffic control devices. Journal of Typographic
Research, 1970, 4(1), 7-38.
Tomlinson, N. & Stevens, J. Reflections on the process of visual
design. Instructional Science, 1972, 1(1), 89-120.

8. AVCOMMUNICATIONREVIEW1974SUMMER : 188
(m)Instructional
Leaflets, Guides,
etc.
(n) Computer-
Assisted
Instruction and
Displays
(o) Special Needs
5. MEASURE-
MENT AND
METHODO-
LOGICAL
PROBLEMS
Walker, R. E., Nicholay, R. C. & Stearns, C. R. Comparative ac-
curacy of recognizing American and international road signs.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 1965, 49, 322-325.
Konz, S. A. & Dickey, G. L. Manufacturing assembly instructions:
A summary. Ergonomics, 1969, 12(3), 369-382.
Poulton, E. C. Skimming lists of food ingredients printed in differ-
ent sizes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1969, 53, 55-58.
Poulton, E. C. Skimming lists of food ingredients printed in differ-
ent brightness contrasts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1969,
53, 498-500.
Poulton, E. C. Size, style, and vertical spacing on the legibility of
small typefaces. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1972, 56,
156-161.
Singleton, W. T. Display design: Principles and procedures.
Ergonomics, 1969, I2(4), 519-531.
Spencer, H., Reynolds, L. & Coe, B. The relative effectiveness of
ten alternative systems of typographic coding in bibliographic
material. Readability of Print Research Unit, Royal College of
Art, Kensington Gore, London, 1973.
Baker, C. A. & Grether, W. A. Visual presentation of information.
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Cranch, O. A report on a system of computer generated alpha-
numeric characters. Readability of Print Research Unit, Royal
College of Art, Kensington Gore, London, 1973.
Lewis, R. A. Legibility of capital and lower-case printout. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 1972, 56, 280-281.
Poulton, E, C. & Brown, C. H. Rate of comprehension of an exist-
ing teleprinter output and of possible alternatives. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 1968, 52(1), 16-21.
Poulton, E. C. Asymmetrical transfer in reading texts produced by
teleprinter and by typewriter. Journal of Applied Psychology,
1969, 53(3), 244-249.
Rolfe, J. M. Numerical display problems. Applied Ergonomics, 1971,
2(1), 7-11.
Singleton, W. T. The ergonomics of information presentation.
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(See also Human Factors,3(2), 1961.)
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